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"Conventional wisdom on the insufficiency of existing WTO disciplines on export restrictions has triggered momentum on the issue. In this book, Ilaria Espa offers a comprehensive analysis of the scope and coverage of WTO disciplines on export restrictions in light of emerging case law. She investigates whether such rules still provide a sufficient, credible and effective framework capable of preventing abuses in the use of export restrictive measures on critical minerals and metals during a period of economic crisis and change in international trade patterns. Giving a broad overview of the export restrictions applied to these materials, Espa identifies distinctive features in the proliferation of export barriers and analyses the existing WTO rules to reveal their scope, gaps and inconsistencies. She goes on to present solutions based upon her findings with the aim of bringing more coherence and equity to WTO rules on the export side."

"ABSTRAKDalam kebijakan kewajiban peningkatan nilai tambah mineral melalui pengolahan dan pemurnian hasil penambangan mineral di dalam negeri dan pelarangan ekspor mineral mentah serta relaksasinya yang diatur dalam UU No. 4 Tahun 2009 tentang Pertambangan Mineral dan Batubara UU Minerba serta peraturan pelaksanaannya terindikasi terdapat ketidaksesuaian dengan pirinsip-prinsip dalam Agreement On Trade-Related Investment Measures TRIMs Agreement , tindakan yang dilarang menurut paragraf 2 huruf c Illustrattive List TRIMs Agreement mengenai Export Restrictions, yaitu tindakan yang membatasi ekspor atau penjualan untuk ekspor, yang ditentukan dalam hal produk tertentu, baik dalam hal volume atau nilai produk, atau dalam hal perbandingan volume atau nilai produksi lokalnya. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah yuridis-normatif dengan data sekunder yang didapatkan dari bahan kepustakaan, serta didukung dengan data primer sebagai data penunjang. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa peraturan perundang-undangan tersebut tidak sesuai dengan prinsip dalam TRIMs Agreement, yaitu mengandung export restriction, dalam hal tindakan pembatasan ekspor mineral, bahwa tidak semua produk hasil penambangan mineral dapat dilakukan ekspor, melainkan khusus untuk produk mineral tertentu hasil pengolahan dan pemurnian sesuai batas minimum pengolahan dan/atau pemurnian nilai produk tertentu dan dan dibatasi dalam jumlah tertentu.

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ABSTRACTIn the policy of the increasing of mineral added value obligation through processing and smelting of domestic mining and raw material export restrictions and its relaxations in Indonesian Law No. 4 Year 2009 on Mineral and Coal Mining Mining Law and its implementing regulations indicated there are incompatibility with principles of Agreement On Trade Related Investment Measures TRIMs Agreement , which is the prohibited acts under paragraph 2 c Illustrative List of TRIMs Agreement, namely Export Restrictions, which measures restricting the export or sale for export, which is defined in terms of specific products, both in terms of volume or value of products, or in terms of proportion of volume or value of its local production. The method used is the juridical normative with secondary data obtained from the literature, and supported by primary data. The results showed that not in accordance with the principles of the TRIMs Agreement, which contains export restriction, in terms of restrictions on exports of minerals, that not all products can be mined mineral exports, but specific to certain mineral products processing and smelting results corresponding minimum limit of processing and or smelting the value of a certain product and the specific and limited in number."

"The Indonesian government adopted mineral export taxes by imposing a high tariff on raw materials while waiving tariffs on processed products. Tariffs decreased following the progress of refinery plant construction. Based on the fixed effects panel regression at the commodity-country-pair level, this study finds that the export taxes system negatively reduces raw material export while increasing processed mineral export. Tariff stratification on mineral commodities distorts trade patterns, affecting business orientation in upstream and downstream sectors. Furthermore, tier tariff significantly elevates the export quantity of downstream products compared to flat export taxes, directly proportional to export value. Export contraction of raw materials resulted from tier tariff slightly lower than the flat type but with a higher exports performance of processed products. The shifting phenomena to the value-added industry indicate an effort for export taxes evasion. This finding is reinforced by the massive investment inflow in the mineral processing sector. Meanwhile, the exporter manufacturing industry positively correlates with the export performance of processed products and a negative direction with raw material, which aligns with the main finding."

"Tesis ini membahas mengenai praktik Ekspor Crude Palm Oil (CPO) di Indonesia dan membahas mengenai larangan Ekspor Crude Palm Oil (CPO) melalui Peraturan Menteri Perdagangan Nomor 22 Tahun 2022 Tentang Larangan Sementara Ekspor Crude Palm Oil, Refined, Bleached and Deodorized Palm Oil, Refined, Bleached and Deodorized Palm Olein, dan Used Cooking Oil yang kemudian ditinjau dari aturan WTO. Metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah yuridis normatif. Adapun hasil penelitian mengemukakan bahwa pemerintah Indonesia mengeluarkan Peraturan Menteri Perdagangan Nomor 22 Tahun 2022 Tentang Larangan Sementara Ekspor Crude Palm Oil, Refined, Bleached and Deodorized Palm Oil, Refined, Bleached and Deodorized Palm Olein, dan Used Cooking Oil. Kegiatan dagang berupa pembatasan Ekspor tersebut diatur dalam perjanjian WTO, Article XI GATT 1994 membahas khusus tentang pembatasan kuantitatif dengan Pasal yang berjudul "General Elimination Of Quantitative Restrictions". Pembatasan ekspor kuantitatif yang diatur di dalam WTO merupakan suatu hal yang dilarang kecuali apabila tindakan tersebut diatur dalam Article XI:2 GATT. Penjelasan mengenai pasal-pasal pengecualian dapat diketahui melalui temuan Panel dalam historis penyelesaian sengketa WTO dan GATT. Peraturan Menteri Perdagangan Nomor 22 Tahun 2022 telah memenuhi unsur-unsur dalam Pasal pengecualian dalam GATT, tetapi peraturan tersebut tidak mengatur tentang pengawasan pelaksanaan sehingga walaupun dapat dinyatakan konsisten dengan perjanjian WTO, penerapan dari perjanjian tersebut rawan untuk mengakibatkan adanya pelanggaran yang berakibat adanya posibilitas inkonsistensi tindakan Indonesia dengan Perjanjian WTO yang dapat berujung kepada gugatan dari negara lain. Dengan melakukan penelitian ini, diharapkan pemerintah akan lebih mempertimbangkan urusan campur tangan dalam pembuatan kebijakan ekspor di masa depan. Hal ini akan menjadi faktor utama dalam proses pengeluaran regulasi yang berpotensi mempengaruhi pasar, dan juga membutuhkan pembentukan lembaga khusus yang bertanggung jawab dalam melakukan pengawasan.

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This thesis discusses the practice of Exporting Crude Palm Oil (CPO) in Indonesia and discusses the prohibition on the Export of Crude Palm Oil (CPO) through Minister of Trade Regulation Number 22 of 2022 concerning Temporary Prohibition of Exports of Crude Palm Oil, Refined, Bleached and Deodorized Palm Oil, Refined , Bleached and Deodorized Palm Olein, and Used Cooking Oil which are then reviewed from WTO rules. The research method used in this research is normative juridical. The research results show that the Indonesian government issued Minister of Trade Regulation Number 22 of 2022 concerning Temporary Prohibition of Exports of Crude Palm Oil, Refined, Bleached and Deodorized Palm Oil, Refined, Bleached and Deodorized Palm Olein, and Used Cooking Oil. Trade activities in the form of export arrests are regulated in the WTO agreement, Article XI GATT 1994 specifically discusses quantitative explanations with an article entitled "General Elimination of Quantitative Restrictions". Quantitative export restrictions regulated in the WTO are prohibited unless such actions are regulated in Article XI:2 GATT. Explanations regarding these articles can be found through the Panel's findings in the history of the WTO and GATT settlements. Regulation of the Minister of Trade Number 22 of 2022 has fulfilled the elements in the Articles referred to in the GATT, but this regulation does not regulate implementation supervision so that even though it can be declared consistent with the WTO agreement, the implementation of the agreement is prone to resulting in violations which result in the possibility of inconsistent actions. Indonesia with the WTO Agreement which could end in lawsuits from other countries. By conducting this research, it is hoped that the government will take more consideration into matters of intervention in policy making in the future. This will be a major factor in the production regulation process which has the potential to influence the market, and will also form the establishment of a special institution responsible for carrying out supervision."

"Penelitian ini mengangkat permasalahan yaitu alasan pemerintah menerapkan kebijakan bea keluar atas barang ekspor mineral, pencapaian tujuan kebijakan bea keluar atas barang ekspor mineral, dan alternatif kebijakan bagi kebijakan bea keluar atas barang ekspor mineral. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dengan desain deskriptif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa alasan pemerintah menerapkan kebijakan bea keluar atas barang ekspor mineral adalah untuk mendukung pelaksanaan peningkatan nilai tambah, yang merupakan amanat dari Undang-Undang No. 4 Tahun 2009. Secara umum tujuan kebijakan bea keluar sudah tercapai, yakni pengendalian penjualan bijih ke luar negeri, peningkatan nilai tambah, dan menjaga ketersediaan sumber daya mineral di dalam negeri. Namun tujuan pengendalian ekspor belum optimal tercapai, beberapa komoditi justru mengalami peningkatan volume ekspor. Alternatif kebijakan yang dapat diberikan adalah penerapan earmarked tax pada penerimaan bea keluar, penerapan diferensiasi tarif baik berdasarkan klasifikasi nilai tambah produk maupun berdasarkan tingkat pengolahannya, dan tarif progresif.

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This research raised issues regarding the reason government implemented export tax policy on mineral export goods, objective achievement of export tax policy on mineral export goods, and alternative policy for export tax policy on mineral export goods. This research uses qualitative approach with descriptive design. The result showed that the reason government implemented export tax policy on mineral export goods is to support value added enhancement practice, which is mandated of Law Number 4 Year 2012.

Generally, the objectives is achieved, that is mineral ore export control, value added enhancement, and protect availability of mineral resources in domestic. However export control objective is not optimally achived, some comodity on the contrary increased in export volume. Alternative policy given is application of earmarked tax on tax export revenue, application of rate differentiation either by value added product classification nor by its processing level, and progressive rate."

"Perdagangan internasional sangatlah penting dalam kehidupan manusia, hal tersebut tidak dapat dipisahkan dari komunitas internasional. Dalam hal tersebut, terdapat beberapa permasalahan dan kesulitan untuk tercapainya penyelesaian transaksi, terutama dalam hal pembayaran. Letter of Credit (“L/C”), sebagai alat pembayaran, diperkenalkan untuk mengatasi permasalahan dan kesulitan tersebut. Penelitian ini membahas pengaturan yang ada di sistem hukum Indonesia terhadap L/C, fokus pada kerangka dan sifat hukum dari L/C. Selanjutnya, penelitian ini juga akan membahas adanya peraturan yang berlaku yang mewajibkan penggunaan L/C bagi beberapa pihak untuk ekspor komoditas mineral dan batubara, dengan menjelaskan kewajiban tersebut dan siapa saja yang terikat terhadap kewajiban tersebut. Dengan melakukan penelitian hukum yuridis, menggunakan beberapa bahan hukum seperti primer, sekunder, dan tersier, akan disimpulkan bahwa L/C mempunyai sifat dan kerangka hukum, yang mencakup keberlakukan dasar hukum untuk L/C, asas-asas, bentuk-bentuk yang ada, hubungan hukum antar pihak, hak dan kewajiban dari para pihak, dan aspek lainnya. Selanjutnya, siapa saja pihak yang terikat berdasarkan Keputusan Menteri Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral No. 1952 K/84/MEM/2018 atas kewajiban penggunaan L/C untuk kegiatan ekspor mineral dan batubara. Penelitian ini akan menyarankan pemerintah Indonesia untuk mengeluarkan peraturan dalam negeri yang dapat memberikan kejelasan mengenai dasar hukum yang berlaku untuk L/C. Selanjutnya, akan menyarankan para pihak yang berkewajiban untuk memenuhi atau tunduk atas kewajiban tersebut guna mencegah sanksi – sanksi yang ada.

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International trade is very important in life, it cannot be separated from the international community. There are many problems and difficulties for closure, especially for the payment. Letter of Credit (“L/C”), as a payment instrument, was introduced to overcome such problems and difficulties. This research discusses firstly, the law and regulation of L/C in Indonesian legal system, which focus on the legal framework or legal nature of it. Secondly, this research discusses the prevailing regulations in Indonesia which obliged several parties to use L/C for export activities, in this case for minerals and coal commodities, which will be explaining the obligation and to whom it is addressed. By conducting a juridical legal research, through several legal materials, from the primary, secondary, and tertiary, it will be concluded that L/C as an instrument have its own legal nature, which covers its legal basis that is applicable, principles, forms, legal relations which derived from its, the rights and obligations of the parties and other aspects. Also, there are several parties under the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources Decree Number 1952 K/84/MEM/2018 that were addressed to the obligation to use L/C for minerals and coal export activities. This research would suggest the Indonesian authority to issue local regulation to govern the usage of L/C that will give clarity on the applicable law. Further, would also suggest the addressed parties of the obligation to fulfill or to comply with the regulation in ordaer to prevent the sanctions."

"Dalam upaya menjaga lingkungan, Uni Eropa memberlakukan peraturan Renewable Energy Directive 2018/2001 (RED II). Gagasan perubahan penggunaan lahan tidak langsung (ILUC), yang membatasi perdagangan minyak sawit mentah (CPO) sementara barang domestik setara lainnya bebas dari pengurangan tersebut, akan menjadi area utama di mana penulis menilai bagaimana RED II diskriminatif terhadap perdagangan Indonesia. dari CPO. Indonesia meminta WTO untuk menyelidiki apakah RED II sesuai dengan komitmen internasional yang digariskan dalam WTO setelah kebijakan ini diumumkan. Penulis akan mengkaji non-diskriminasi berdasarkan hukum WTO, terutama berdasarkan persyaratan Pasal 2.1, 2.2 Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) serta Pasal I:1 dan III:4 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1994 bersama dengan kasus hukum WTO terkait. Dengan menggunakan data sekunder dan sumber pustaka, dalam penelitian ini digunakan teknik yuridis-normatif. Kesimpulan dari analisis ini menunjukkan bahwa RED II melanggar kewajiban non-diskriminasi berdasarkan GATT dan TBT karena memperlakukan item yang sebanding secara berbeda, yang menghasilkan perlakuan yang kurang menguntungkan dan kemungkinan persaingan yang tidak merata untuk CPO.

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In an effort to safeguard the environment, the European Union enacted the Renewable Energy Directive 2018/2001 (RED II) regulation. The idea of indirect land use change (ILUC), which restricts trade toward crude palm oil (CPO) while other domestically equivalent goods are free from such reduction, will be the main area in which the authors assess how RED II is discriminatory toward Indonesian trade of CPO. Indonesia asked the WTO to investigate whether RED II complies with the international commitments outlined in the WTO after this policy was announced. The author will examine non-discrimination under WTO law, especially based on the requirements of Articles 2.1, 2.2, of the Technical Barriers to Trade as well as Articles I: 1 and III:4 of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1994, along with pertinent WTO case law. Using secondary data and library resources, the juridical-normative technique is being used for this research. The conclusion of this analysis demonstrates that RED II does break the non-discrimination duties based on GATT and TBT since it treats comparable items differently, which results in less favorable treatment and uneven possibilities for competition for CPO."