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"The Mincerian earnings functions are estimated using cross section and time series data for Korea during the 1993-2002 period. Male and female workers with university and higher education earn 1.8 and 2.9 times more than with the middle school and under education in 2002, respectively."

"[ABSTRAKPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis dampak perdagangan internasional terhadap kesenjangan gender di sektor manufaktur di Indonesia berdasarkan teori Becker. Menurut teori ini, perdagangan internasional meningkatkan persaingan industri dan pada gilirannya menurunkan diskriminasi gender. Ini merupakan studi tingkat industri yang membandingkan efek dari perdagangan internasional pada kesenjangan upah gender dan lapangan kerja perempuan dalam industri yang kompetitif dan industri terkonsentrasi.Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa perdagangan internasional menurunkan ketidaksetaraan gender dalam industri terkonsentrasi karena menurunkan kesenjangan upah gender dan meningkatkan lapangan kerja perempuan. Sementara itu, ketidaksetaraan gender memburuk dalam industri kompetitif karena perdagangan meningkatkan kesenjangan upah gender dan mengurangi tenaga kerja perempuan.;

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ABSTRACTThis research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment;This research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment;This research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment;This research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment, This research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment]"

"Kesenjangan upah antar gender telah menjadi polemik di seluruh negara di dunia, terutama negara berkembang. Upah minimum hadir sebagai kebijakan tentang sistem pengupahan yang bertujuan untuk menjadi safety net bagi para pekerja. Meskipun kebijakan ini bukannlah kebijakan yang berorientasi pada gender, namun jika jumlah wanita dan jarak upah aktual terhadap upah minimum yang diterima oleh wanita lebih rendah dibandingkan pria, maka upah minimum dapat memperbaki gender wage gap. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk melihat dampak dari kenaikan upah minimum terhadap kesenjangan upah antar gender di seluruh provinsi di Indonesia dengan menggunakan metode kontrafaktual pada distribusi upah. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa dampak upah minimum di Indonesia justru memperlebar gap upah antar gender terutama pada pekerja di distribusi upah rendah. Dampak upah minium di level regional bervariasi antar provinsi.

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Wage gap disparities have become polemic in almost all countries in the world, especially in developing countries. Minimum wage is present as a policy on wage system that aims to be a safety net for workers. Although this policy is not a gender oriented policy, if the number of women and the actual wage distance of women 39 s minimum wage is lower than that of men, then the minimum wage may raise the wage gap.

This study aims to examine the impact of minimum wage increases on wage gap across all provinces in Indonesia by using counterfactual methods on wage distribution. The results of this study indicate that the impact of minimum wages in Indonesia actually widen the wage gap between the gender especially on workers in the distribution of low wages. The impact of regional minium wages varies across provinces."

"Kesetaraan gender menjadi isu yang diperjuangkan secara terus menerus. Salah satu aspek yang menjadi indikator evaluasi apakah kesetaraan gender sudah diterapkan adalah adanya fenomena kesenjangan upah antar gender. Studi ini bertujuan untuk melihat persistensi kesenjangan upah antar gender dengan menggunakan data Sakernas 2022 serta variasi kesenjangan antar gender yang terjadi di antara sektor industri, tempat tinggal, dan tipe kontrak. Pada tahun 2022, ditunjukkan bahwa gender kesenjangan upah antar gender di Indonesia meningkat dibanding dengan tahun 2010, baik pada daerah pedesaan maupun perkotaan. Selain itu, secara keseluruhan, kesenjangan upah antar gender bervariase antar sektor dengan tertinggi terdapat pada sektor perdagangan besar, eceran, reparasi dan perawatan mobil sedangkan sektor dengan kesenjangan upah terendah adalah sektor keuangan, asuransi, dan real estat. Hal yang sama terjadi pada daerah perkotaan. Namun, jika dilihat pada daerah pedesaan, sektor pengangkutan, pergudangan, informasi dan komunikasi memiliki kesenjangan upah tertinggi, sementara sektor aktivitas kesehatan manusia dan aktivitas sosial memiliki kesenjangan upah terendah.

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Gender equality has become an ongoing campaign years after years. One aspect that serves as an indicator of whether gender equality has been implemented is the phenomenon of the gender wage gap. This research aims to examine the persistence of the gender wage gap phenomena, using the data from Sakernas 2022. Additionally, this study also displays the variations of gender wage gap between sectors, areas, and employment types. The result indicates that Indonesia showed a wider gender wage gap in 2022, compared to 2010, in both rural and urban areas. Overall, the highest gender wage gap was found in the wholesale, retail trade, and motor vehicle repair and maintenance sectors, while the sector with the lowest wage gap was the finance, insurance, and real estate sectors. The same pattern was observed in urban areas. However, in rural areas, the transportation, warehousing, information, and communication sector had the highest wage gap, while the human health and social work activities sectors had the lowest wage gap."

"Women commonly face gender employment discrimination especially in the matter of unequal wage that creates the existing gender wage gap issue. Our study takes a closer look at the human capital aspect and labor market institution as the tool of decomposing equal wage distribution among genders. To be specific, female tertiary education attainment and the national minimum wage are examined using regression analysis to identify the influence on the gender wage gap. Thus, we offer insight of the educational attainment and minimum wage impact on the gender wage gap by collecting data from European Union countries in the period of 2014 to 2018. Findings of this study suggest that higher female education attainment in tertiary level may not play a significant role in narrowing the gender wage gap of EU countries, while the country’s minimum wage contributes in lowering the gender wage gap.

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Wanita sering kali menghadapi diskriminasi gender terutama masalah ketimpangan upah sehingga menghasilkan masalah kesenjangan upah antar gender. Studi ini memiliki fokus kepada aspek sumber daya manusia dan institusi ketenagakerjaan sebagai tolok ukur distribusi keseimbangan upah antar gender. Untuk lebih spesifik, tingkat pendidikan tersier wanita dan upah minimum nasional diuji menggunakan analisis regresi untuk mengidentifikasi pengaruhnya terhadap kesenjangan upah antar gender. Dengan mengumpulkan data dari beberapa negara Uni Eropa periode 2014 sampai 2018, studi ini memberikan gambaran mengenai pengaruh tingkat pendidikan tersier wanita serta upah minimum nasional terhadap kesenjangan upah antar gender. Hasil dari studi menunjukkan bahwa tingkat pendidikan tersier wanita tidak mengurangi kesenjangan upah antar gender secara signifikan, sementara upah minimum nasional secara signifikan mengurangi kesenjangan upah antar gender di negara Uni Eropa."

"Ketimpangan antar jenis kelamin di pasar tenaga kerja Indonesia masih terjadi. Hal ini memicu pekerja perempuan untuk menempuh pendidikan yang lebih tinggi agar dapat bersaing dengan pekerja laki laki, sehingga pekerja perempuan mengalami job-education mismatch karena memiliki pendidikan yang lebih tinggi dari yang dibutuhkan oleh pekerjaannya. Baik studi mengenai job-education mismatch maupun studi mengenai selisih antara upah pekerja laki-laki dan pekerja perempuan sudah banyak berkembang, namun belum banyak studi yang melihat hubungan antara keduanya. Penelitian ini diharapkan mampu menemukan bagaimana job-education mismatch mempengaruhi selisih upah antara pekerja laki-laki dan pekerja perempuan di Indonesia. Data yang digunakan adalah data SAKERNAS Agustus 2016. Status mismatch ditentukan dengan job-evaluation method menggunakan standar ISCO 2008 dan ISCED 1997. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa secara keseluruhan, pekerja yang mengalami overqualified menerima wage penalty, pekerja yang mengalami underqualified menerima wage premium, dan mismatch pada pekerja perempuan memperburuk wage gap antara pekerja laki-laki dan perempuan.

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Gender disparity still exists in Indonesias labor market. Discrimination between female and male workers then triggers female workers to achieve a higher education to be able to compete with male workers. That leads female workers to have a mismatch between their job and education, because they are overqualified for their jobs. Even though both studies about job education mismatch and females wage gap are already done by so many researchers, but less discuss about the relationship between them.

This research aims to find out how job education mismatch affects gender wage gap in Indonesia. This research used SAKERNAS August 2016 data. The mismatch status is obtained with job evaluation method using ISCO 2008 and ISCED 1997 standards.

The result of the research shows that overall, overqualified workers receive wage penalty, underqualified workers receive wage premium, and mismatch worsens the wage gap between male and female workers. "

"Penelitian ini menggunakan data SAKERNAS 2019-2021 untuk meneliti situasi ketenagakerjaan dan kesenjangan upah antar gender sebelum dan selama pandemi Covid-19 dengan menggunakan OLS untuk mengetahui faktor penentu upah dan Blinder-Oaxaca untuk menguraikan komponen-komponen kesenjangan upah. Hasil penelitian mengungkapn bahwa pekerja laki-laki diupah 38% lebih tinggi daripada pekerja perempuan pada tahun 2019, dan kesenjangan upah menurun masing-masing menjadi 35,7% pada tahun 2020 dan 35,2% pada tahun 2021. Analisis lebih lanjut dengan uji-t dan uji-z pada perbandingan kesenjangan upah antar sektor dan provinsi menyimpulkan bahwa tidak ada perubahan yang signifikan pada kesenjangan upah antar gender di Indonesia selama pandemic Covid-19 tahun.

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This study uses SAKERNAS 2019-2021 data to investigate the employment situation and the wage gap across genders before and during the Covid-19 pandemic by employing OLS to examine the wage determinants and Blinder-Oaxaca to decompose the wage gap. The result reports that male workers waged 38 percent higher than female workers in 2019, and the wage gap decreased to 35.7 percent and 35.2 percent, respectively, in 2020 and 2021. Further analysis with t-test and z-test on wage gap comparisons among business sectors and provinces find no evidence that the wage gap across genders changes due to the Covid-19 pandemic."

"ABSTRAKDalam sepuluh tahun terakhir, kondisi kesenjangan gender dalam pengupahan pada perkerja yang tergolong sebagai buruh/karyawan di Indonesia terlihat menurun. Dengan dekomposisi Oaxaca menggunakan data IFLS 2007 dan 2014, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mencari tahu apakah penurunan kesenjangan gender dalam pengupahan benar-benar terjadi, dan cerita di baliknya. Ditemukan bahwa kesenjangan gender terlihat meningkat jika hanya dilihat dari raw gap 34 di tahun 2007 dan 37 di 2014 , tetapi porsi dari kesenjangan gender yang disebabkan oleh perbedaan karakteristik perempuan dan laki-laki explained factors meningkat 13 di tahun 2007 dan 22 di 2014 . Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa porsi dari gender wage gap yang disebabkan oleh unexplained gap, yang mengindikasikan kemungkinan diskriminasi atau hal-hal lain yang tidak dapat terukur oleh perbedaan karakteristik, menurun. Penelitian ini juga menemukan bahwa occupational segregation segregasi pekerja berdasarkan jenis kelamin di berbagai jenis pekerjaan memberikan pengaruh yang berbeda terhadap pekerja di perusahan swasta dan pekerja yang bekerja pada pemerintah.

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ABSTRACTIn the last ten years, Indonesia has seen a consistently declining gender wage gap for those who work as employees. Using the Oaxaca decomposition applied to the IFLS 2007 and 2014 data sets, this study aims to find out if the narrowing of the gender wage gap really occured and the story behind the decreasing gap. I found that the raw gender wage gap widens 34 in 2007 to 37 in 2014 , but the explained factors of the gap increases 13 in 2007 to 22 in 2014 . This shows that the gender wage gap that can be attributed to differences in characteristics between women and men is increasing, when the possible discrimination and unmeasurable characteristics between men and women is decreasing. It is also found that occupational segregation based on gender affects private sector workers and government workers differently."

"ABSTRAKDalam dua dekade terakhir, Indonesia mengalami peningkatan pada total perdagangan dan FDI. Dalam periode 2008-2014, terdapat bukti kenaikan volume FDI yang juga disertai dengan peningkatan perbedaan upah pria dan wanita. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan untuk mengidentifikasi efek dari keterbukaan perdagangan terhadap perbedaan upah antara pria dan wanita dan juga menganalisa perbedaan efek tersebut ditiap distribusi upah. Tesis ini menggunakan data Sakernas 2008-2014 dan data PMA dari BKPM. Selanjutnya, setelah mengaplikasikan metode OLS dan Quantile Regression, terlihat dari hasil regresi bahwa kesenjangan upah antara pria dan wanita lebih besar terjadi pada bagian bawah distribusi upah dibandingkan pada bagian atas distribusi upah. Selain itu, hasil lainnya menunjukan bahwa perbedaan upah antara pria dan wanita di kelompok provinsi berpenghasilan tinggi lebih kecil dibandingkan pada kelompok provinsi berpenghasilan rendah.

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ABSTRACTIn the past two decades, Indonesia has experienced an increase in total trade and FDI. In the period 2008 2014, there was an increasing of FDI volume, which was followed by a widening trend in the female and male earnings gap. Looking at all that facts, this study investigates the impact of trade openness on female male earnings differentials and how the impact differs across the wage distribution. This thesis used data employment from the National Labor Survey SAKERNAS published by Statistics Indonesia and FDI data released by the Investment Coordinating Board BKPM . Furthermore, after applying the OLS and the Quantile Regression estimation method, it appears that gender wage gap is narrower in low quantile wage distributions than in high quantile distributions. In addition, another important finding emerges from the results of income provincial groups, which shows that gender wage differentials are narrower in high income and middle provinces than in low income provinces."

"The study of the gender wage gap is primarily focused on the difference of the gap found by the Oaxaca-Blinder (1973). However, the latest decomposition method, which calculates the wage gap using the Recentered Influence Function (RIF), can prove useful in revealing the gap across the wage distribution as well as the common phenomena of the wage gap which is called the glass ceiling effect and sticky floor effect in the labor market. This study examines the gender wage gap across the wage distribution in the informal sector employment using the Indonesian National Labor Survey in 2019. The findings of the study present evidence of a weak sticky floor effect in the sector’s employment. It was discovered that the gender wage gap grows smaller at the upper wage distribution. Furthermore, the structure effect contributes to the largest portion of the gap that explains the difference in wage for the entirety of the wage distribution, ranging from 70% to 97%. From the individual characteristics examined, education is the prominent factor which will help women narrow the gap.

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Studi tentang kesenjangan upah gender menggunakan metode dekomposisi yang dipopulerkan oleh Oaxaca-Blinder (1973) hanya difokuskan pada perbedaan kesenjangan pada rata-rata upah. Namun, metode dekomposisi terbaru, yang menghitung kesenjangan upah menggunakan Recentered Influence Function (RIF), terbukti berguna dalam mengungkap kesenjangan di seluruh distribusi upah serta fenomena umum kesenjangan upah yang disebut Glass ceiling effect dan Sticky floor effect di pasar tenaga kerja. Studi ini mengkaji kesenjangan upah gender di seluruh distribusi upah di lapangan kerja sektor informal menggunakan Survei Tenaga Kerja Nasional Indonesia tahun 2019 terutama untuk kategori pekerja tetap dan pekerja bebas. Temuan penelitian ini menunjukkan adanya Sticky floor effect yang lemah dalam di sektor informal. Kesenjangan upah gender menunjukkan tingkat yang lebih kecil di distribusi upah atas dibanding distribusi upah bawah. Stucture effect menjadi porsi terbesar dari kesenjangan yang menjelaskan perbedaan upah untuk keseluruhan distribusi upah, mulai dari 70% hingga 97%. Dari karakteristik individu yang diteliti, pendidikan diyakini merupakan faktor utama yang akan membantu perempuan mempersempit kesenjangan antar gender."