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"ABSTRAKPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk menelaah evolusi ketimpangan dan polarisasi pendapatan di Indonesia beserta sumber-sumbernya sepanjang 2002-2012. Di sini, ketimpangan tidak hanya diulas dalam konteks ketimpangan outcome (seperti pendapatan atau pengeluaran), namun juga ketimpangan kesempatan terhadap kebutuhan dasar individu seperti pendidikan, air bersih, dan listrik. Dengan mengadopsi model Esteban dan Ray (2011), penelitian ini juga mengulas bagaimana peranan ketimpangan dan polarisasi pendapatan, fraksionalisasi etnis, serta faktor-faktor sosial ekonomi lainnya terhadap kejadian konflik di Indonesia.Studi ini menemukan bahwa ketimpangan dan polarisasi pengeluaran di Indonesia ditemui cenderung meningkat secara bersamaan sepanjang 2002-2012. Fenomena peningkatan ketimpangan dan polarisasi tidak hanya terjadi pada tingkat nasional, namun juga pada lingkup wilayah desa-kota, kawasan barat-timur, serta kelompok provinsi kaya sumberdaya alam (SDA) dan tidak (nonSDA). Hasil dekomposisi menemukan bahwa wilayah perkotaan lebih berperan terhadap total ketimpangan dan polarisasi pendapatan nasional ketimbang wilayah perdesaan. Pada kelompok kawasan barat-timur dan kelompok provinsi SDA-nonSDA, kontributor terbesar total ketimpangan dan polarisasi adalah kawasan barat dan kelompok provinsi nonSDA. Berdasarkan jenis pengeluaran, pengeluaran non-makanan merupakan penyumbang terbesar total ketimpangan dan polarisasi di Indonesia selama periode 2002-2012.Berbeda dengan ketimpangan dan polarisasi yang cenderung meningkat, ketimpangan kesempatan dasar anak usia sekolah di Indonesia secara umum ditemui cenderung menurun. Fakta positif ini memperlihatkan bahwa tidak hanya peluang atau kesempatan dasar anak usia sekolah di Indonesia yang semakin baik, namun juga distribusi kesempatan tersebut cenderung semakin merata. Berdasarkan sumber-sumbernya, pendidikan kepala keluarga, pendapatan rumah tangga, dan wilayah (desa-kota) merupakan faktor yang berkontribusi dominan terhadap ketimpangan kesempatan di Indonesia sepanjang 2002-2012.Terakhir, studi ini menemukan bahwa tingginya tingkat ketimpangan dan polarisasi pendapatan, serta fraksionalisasi etnis berperan dalam meningkatkan risiko konflik di wilayah provinsi Indonesia. Pada bagian ini juga ditemui bahwa provinsi dengan tingkat kemiskinan dan pengangguran yang tinggi berpotensi mengalami risiko konflik yang tinggi pula. Begitu juga provinsi dengan tingkat populasi yang tinggi berpeluang mengalami konflik yang lebih tinggi. Terakhir, bagian ini menemukan adanya keterkaitan antara konflik dengan beberapa jenis pengeluaran pemerintah daerah, yakni: belanja pendidikan, kesehatan, ekonomi, dan perlindungan sosial. Di sini ditemui hampir seluruh jenis belanja pemerintah yang

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ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to examine the evolution of income inequality and income polarization as well as its decompositions in Indonesia over 2002-2012. Here, inequality is not only viewed as the inequality of outcomes (such as income or expenditure), but it also covers inequality of opportunity in access to set of basics goods and services, such as education, clean water, and electricity. By adopting a behavioral model of conflict from Esteban and Ray (2011), this study also discussed the role of income inequality, income polarization, ethnic fractionalization, as well as socio-economic factors in explaining the incidence of conflict in Indonesia provinces over 2002-2012.

The results showed that income inequality and income polarization in Indonesia tended to increase simultaneously throughout 2002-2012. The phenomenon of rising inequalities and polarization did not only occur at the national level, but it also occurs at the regional level, namely rural and urban regions, eastern Indonesia and western Indonesia, and natural resource-rich province and non-natural resource-rich province as well. Results drawn from decomposition found that the role of urban area to the total inequality and polarization was more dominant than that rural area. In the east and west regions, the largest contributor of the total inequality and polarization was the western region. In natural resource-group province, it is found that the non-natural resourcerich province was the largest contributor. Meanwhile, in relation to the type of expenditures, it is found that non-food expenditure was the largest contributor in explaining total inequality and polarization during that period.

In contrary, this study found that inequality of opportunity in access to set of basics goods and services tended to decline. This positive fact shows that not only the basic opportunities of school-age children in Indonesia is getting better, but also the distribution of the basic opportunity tends to be uneven. From the decomposition results, this study also found that the education of household head, household income, and region (rural-urban) were dominant factors contributing to inequality of opportunity in Indonesia during 2002-2012.

Finally, this study verified that the high degree of income polarization, ethnic fractionalization, and income inequality associated with the high probability of conflict. It also found that socio-economic factors, such as poverty, unemployment, population, and natural resources, as well as several types of local government exependiture appear to be significantly associated with conflict."

"Conflict economics contributes to an understanding of violent conflict and peace in two important ways. First, it applies economic concepts and models to help one understand diverse conflict activities such as war, terrorism, genocide, and peace. Second, it treats coercive appropriation as a fundamental economic activity, joining production and exchange as a means of wealth acquisition. In the second edition of their book Principles of Conflict Economics, Anderton and Carter provide comprehensive, up-to-date coverage of the key themes and principles of conflict economics. Along with new scholarship on well-established areas such as war, terrorism and alliances and under-researched areas including genocides, individual and family aspects of war, and conflict prevention, they apply new economic tools to the study of war and peace such as behavioral economics and economics of identity and offer deeper research and policy insights into how to reconstitute societies after large-scale violence."

"This book provides comprehensive, up-to-date coverage of the key themes and principles of conflict economics, with new scholarship on well-established areas such as war, terrorism and alliances and under-researched areas including genocides, individual and family aspects of war, and conflict prevention."