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"Language is indissolubly linked with the members of the society in which it is spoken, and social factors are inevitably reflected in their speech. In this accessible introduction, Downes surveys the various ways that language can be studied as a social phenomenon. He discusses the known relationships between language variation and large-scale social factors, showing how the variation runs along ‘fault lines in social structure’, such as divisions between social classes, the sexes and different ethnic groups. Topics covered include domains of language use, language change, code-switching, speech as social action and the nature of meaning and understanding. This thoroughly revised edition includes an up-to-date analysis of language standardisation, language conflict and planning, and a critique of the pragmatic theory of communication. It explains and illustrates the notion of register, and examines the issues surrounding language ideology and power."

"ABSTRACT

The focus of this sociolinguistic study is the relationship between social economic status (socionomic status) and the linguistic code, especially the sentence complexity. The purposes of the study are (1) to measure sentence patterns' among groups of speaker socionomic lower-low, upper-low, lower-middle, and upper-middle; (2) to measure the index of sentence complexity based of the average sentence length (ASL), the index of sentence complexity based on average block length (ABL), and the index of sentence based of the average clause depth (ACD) of four socionomic status groups; (3) to measure the variety of sentence complexity among four socionomic status groups; (4) to measure the effect of socionomic status on the sentence complexity; (5) to measure the contributions of each subvariable of socionomic status to the sentence complexity, and; (6) to measure the close relationship between socionomic status and sentence complexity.

This study used two approaches, namely lingustic and sociological approaches. The relationship between socionomic status and sentence complexity was analyzed in terms deficit theory. The subjects of this study were the native speakers of the Minangkabau language in Municipality of Padang. The data were sentences spoken by informants and individual reports about the social, economic, and cultural conditions of the informants. The data were collected by using recording and questionnaire. The data in the form of sentence were analyzed by using the technique of sentence patterns measurement and sentence complexity according to Cook (1979). Data that were collected by using questionnaire were analyzed by using Hollingshead and Redlich's (1958) and Labov's techniques (1966) to measure the socionomic status of the speakers. Sentence complexity variation among the four socionomic status groups was measured by using one-way variant analysis. The effect of socionomic to the sentence complexity and the contributions of each socionomic's subvariables to sentence complexity were measured by using double regresion analysis technique.

The findings of this study include the following.

There is no significant different between sentence patterns and the index of sentence complexity of oral Minangkabau language spoken by lower-low, upper-low, lower-middle, and upper-middle socionomic status speaker. The sentence patterns and sentence complexity do not indicate the socionomic status of its speakers. There is no difference of linguistic codes in sentence complexity among the four socionomic status groups.

There is no significant effect between socionomic and ASL. On other side, socionomic status gives significant effect to ABL and ACD. All socionomic's subvariables (Job, education, and income) do not give significant contribution to ASL. Among the three subvariables of socionomic, it is only the income that gives significant contribution to ABL and ACD. Although the effect of socionomic to ASL is minimal, it indicates positive correlation between the socionomic status and ASL, ABL, and ACD."

"Dalam perspektif sosiolinguistik, sabîl lebih cenderung digunakan untuk mengungkapkan suatu jalan atau cara, yang pada umumnya bermakna jalan maknawi. Sedangkan ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ bermakna jalan fisik, yaitu jalan yang dapat dilalui menuju suatu destinasi fisik pula. Di dalam al-Qur’an, nomina sabîl (‫)سبيل‬ diulang sebanyak 170 kali, dan ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ diulang sebanyak 4 kali. Namun, di dalam al-Qur;an, perbedaan ini tidak begitu tampak, khususnya pada QS. Al-Baqarah [2]:108 yang menyebutkan sawa assabîl (‫ل‬ِ ‫ي‬‫ب‬ِ ‫س‬‫ال‬ ‫ء‬َ ‫ا‬‫و‬َ ‫س‬) yang artinya ‘jalan yang lurus’ dan dalam QS.) yang artinya ‘jalan yang Al-ahqaf [46]:30 menyebutkan ṭarīqi mustaqim (‫يم‬ٍ ‫ق‬ِ َ ‫ت‬‫س‬ْ ‫م‬ُ ‫ق‬‫ي‬‫ر‬ِ ‫ط‬ lurus’. Maka dari itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengungkap persamaa n danperbedaan nomina sabîl (‫)سبيل‬ dan ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ dalam al-Qur’an yang diliha t dariperspektif sosiolinguistik. Penelitian ini termasuk penelitian pustaka (library research), yang tergolong pada penelitian kualitatif dalam paradigma bahasa. Data yang diperlukan dalam penelitian ini yaitu nomina sabîl (‫)سبيل‬ dan ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ yang terdapat dalam al-Qur’an dan koran Arab. Data yang diambil dari al-Qur’an mer upakandata yang ingin dikaji persamaan dan perbedaannya, sedangkan data yang diambil dari koran merupakan data perspektif sosiolinguistiknya. Sehingga, pemaknaan nomina sabîl (‫)سبيل‬ dan ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ dalam al-Qur’an dapat dianalisa melalui penggunaannya dalam koran. Hasil penelitian tesis ini menunjukkan bahwa persamaan antara nomina sabîl (‫)سبيل‬ dan ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ berada dalam konteks makna leksikal, yaitu makna fisik sebenarnya yang sudah terverifikasi oleh hasil pengamatan indera manusia. Maka makna leksikal cenderung apa adanya sesuai dengan makna dalam kamus. Kemudian persamaan makna gramatikal, atributif, denotatif, dan konseptual. Sedangkan perbedaannya terletak pada konteks makna kontekstual, yaitu makna sebuah leksem yang berada dalam suatu konteks kalimat. Fungsi nomina sabîl (‫)سبيل‬ selain sebagai jalan maknawi, juga sebagai cara, jalur, alur, jejak, rute, saluran, sarana, medium, dan alat yang tertuju pada posisi yang maknawi pula. Sedangkan fungsi dan posisi nomina ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ untuk menunjukkan jalan fisik yang dapat terukur ukurannya, baik panjangnya, lebarnya, dan medannya. Setiap ‘jalan’ yang menggunakan terminologi ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ pasti menunjukkan bahwa jalan yang dimaksud adalah jalan fisik. Di dalam al-Qur’an, jalan menuju surga dan neraka menggunakan terminologi ṭarīq(‫)طريق‬, yang dalam perspektif sosiolinguistik nomina tersebut menunjukkan jalan fisik. Jalan menuju surga terdapat dalam QS. Al-Ahqaf ayat ke 30, sedangkan jalan menuju neraka terdapat dalam QS. An-Nisa ayat ke 169. Hal inilah yang menjadi signifikansi adanya pembedaan kata ‘jalan’ dalam al-Qur’an.

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In sociolinguistic’s perspective, sabîl (‫)سبيل‬ and ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ occupy different functions and positions. Sabîl (‫)سبيل‬ is more likely to be used to express a way, which generally means a contextual path. While ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ its use in the physical context, that’s a path that can be passed to a physical destination as well. In the Qur'an, nomina sabıl (‫)سبيل‬ is repeated 170 times, and ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ is repeated four times. However, in the Qur'an, this distinction is not very visible, especially in the QS. Al-Baqarah [2]: 108 which mentions sawa assabîl (‫السبيل‬ ‫)سواء‬ which means 'straight path' and in QS. Al-ahqaf [46]: 30 mentions ṭarīqi mustaqim (‫مستقيم‬ ‫)طريق‬ which means 'straight path'. Therefore, this study aims to reveal the similarities and differences of nomina sabîl (‫)سبيل‬ and ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ in the Qur'an from sociolinguistic perspective. This research includes library research, which belongs to qualitative research in the language paradigm. The data required in this study are nomina sabıl (‫)سبيل‬ and ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ which mentioned in the Qur'an and Arab newspapers. The data which is taken from al-Qur'an is the data to be studied equations and differences, while data which is taken from the newspaper is the data for the sociolinguistic perspective. Thus, the meaning of nomina sabıl (‫)سبيل‬ and ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ in the Qur'an can be analyzed through its use innewspapers. The result of this thesis research shows that the equation between sabıl (‫)سبيل‬ and ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ is in the context of lexical meaning, that is, the actual physical meaning that has been verified by the observation of the human senses. Then the lexical meaning tends to be what it is in accordance with the meaning in the dictionary. Then the meanings of grammatical, attributive, denotative, and conceptual. While the difference lies in the context of contextual meaning, namely the meaning of a lexm that is in a sentence context. The function of nomina sabıl (‫)سبيل‬ other than as a means of contextual, also as a way, path, trace, route, channel, medium, and tools are fixed in a position that contextual too. While the function and position nomina ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ to show the physical path that can be measured size, both the length, width, and terrain. Any 'path' using the term of ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ must indicate that the road in question is a physical path. The significance of the distinction of the word 'path' in the Qur'an is a miracle of language that explains the authenticity of the physical path to heaven and hell. In the Qur'an, the road to heaven and hell uses the term of ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬, which in the sociolinguistic perspective, terminology of ṭarīq (‫)طريق‬ shows the physical path to a physical destination as well. The road to heaven is in the QS. Al-Ahqaf verse 30, while the path to hell is contained in the QS. An-Nisa verse 169."

"The language of young people is central in sociolinguistic research, as it is seen to be innovative and a primary source of knowledge about linguistic change and the role of language. This volume brings together a team of leading scholars to explore and compare linguistic practices of young people in multilingual urban spaces, with analyses ranging from grammar to ideology. It includes fascinating examples from cities in Europe, Africa, Canada and the US to demonstrate how young people express their identities through language, for example in hip-hop lyrics and new social media. This is the first book to cover the topic from a globally diverse perspective, and it investigates how linguistic practices across different communities intersect with age, ethnicity, gender and class. In doing so it shows commonalities and differences in how young people experience, act and relate to the contemporary social, cultural and linguistic complexity of the twenty-first century."