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"Penelitian ini bertujuan menganalisis dan membandingkan kerangka hukum perdagangan karbon di Uni Eropa, China, dan Indonesia dengan fokus pada dua aspek utama: kerangka hukum dan kebijakan karbon di UE dan China, serta potensi adopsi dan penyempurnaan regulasi Indonesia berdasarkan pembelajaran dari kedua entitas tersebut. Menggunakan metode penelitian hukum normatif dengan pendekatan komparatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Indonesia telah membangun fondasi regulasi perdagangan karbon melalui Peraturan Presiden No. 98/2021, UU No. 7/2021, UU No. 4/2023, dan Permen LHK No. 21/2022, dengan fokus utama pada sektor kehutanan dan penerapan nilai ekonomi karbon. UE, dengan EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) yang mapan sejak 2005, menawarkan model komprehensif multisektor dengan mekanisme penyesuaian karbon lintas batas/carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM). Sementara itu, China meluncurkan ETS nasional pada 2021 dengan pendekatan berbasis intensitas karbon (carbon intensity), fokus awal pada sektor pembangkit listrik, dan rencana perluasan bertahap. Penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa meskipun Indonesia telah membuat kemajuan signifikan, masih ada ruang untuk penyempurnaan regulasi perdagangan karbon. Adopsi praktik terbaik dari UE dan China, disesuaikan dengan konteks nasional, dapat memperkuat efektivitas sistem perdagangan karbon Indonesia dalam mendukung pencapaian target pengurangan emisi dan pembangunan berkelanjutan. Rekomendasi ini diharapkan berkontribusi pada pengembangan dan penegakan hukum perdagangan karbon di Indonesia yang lebih komprehensif, efektif, dan selaras dengan tren global.

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This research aims to analyze and compare the legal frameworks for carbon trading in the European Union, China, and Indonesia, focusing on two main aspects: the current carbon trading legal frameworks in the EU, China, and Indonesia, and the potential adoption and improvement of Indonesian regulations based on lessons learned from these two entities. The research findings indicate that Indonesia has established a foundation for carbon trading regulations through Presidential Regulation No. 98/2021, Law No. 7/2021, Law No. 4/2023, and Ministry of Environment and Forestry Regulation No. 21/2022, with a primary focus on the forestry sector and the implementation of carbon economic value. The EU, with its well-established Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) since 2005, offers a comprehensive multi-sector model with a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). Meanwhile, China launched its national ETS in 2021 with a carbon intensity-based approach, initially focusing on the power generation sector, with plans for gradual expansion. This study concludes that although Indonesia has made significant progress, there is still room for improvement in carbon trading regulations. Adopting best practices from the EU and China, adapted to the national context, can strengthen the effectiveness of Indonesia's carbon trading system in supporting emission reduction targets and sustainable development. These recommendations are expected to contribute to the development and enforcement of more comprehensive, effective, and globally aligned carbon trading laws in Indonesia."

"Tulisan ini menganalisis tentang permasalahan dan pencegahan permasalahan dalam pelaksanaan bursa karbon di Indonesia. Tulisan ini disusun dengan menggunakan metode penelitian doktrinal. Permasalahan dalam pelaksanaan bursa karbon dapat meliputi permasalahan seperti yang terjadi dalam pasar modal pada umumnya, seperti manipulasi pasar dan penipuan. Manipulasi pasar dapat terjadi dalam pelaksanaan transaksi bursa karbon, contohnya painting the tape, cornering the market, dan marking the close. Kemudian pfvenipuan dapat terjadi dalam penerbitan unit karbon PTBAE-PU dan SPE- GRK. Selain itu, permasalahan khusus bursa karbon seperti yang di alami negara yang lebih dahulu menjalankan bursa karbon dapat dimungkinkan terjadi juga dalam pelaksanaan bursa karbon di Indonesia, seperti greenwashing, double counting, penipuan, dan kejahatan komputer yaitu peretasan komputer untuk mencuri kredit karbon. Kerangka hukum dalam pencegahan permasalahan-permasalahan tersebut dapat diketahui dari UU Pasar Modal sebagaimana telah diubah oleh UU PPSK dan Peraturan Bursa Efek Indonesia, yang melarang tindakan manipulasi pasar dan penipuan. Perpres 98/2021, Pemerintah mensyaratkan adanya pihak ketiga independen selaku verifikator maupun validator. Selain itu, pihak yang melakukan penipuan dapat dibekukan maupun dicabut akreditasinya oleh lembaga KAN. Permasalahan greenwashing pencegahannya melalui UU Perlindungan konsumen yang mewajibkan pelaku usaha untuk memberikan informasi yang benar, jelas, dan jujur tentang barang dan jasa yang ditawarkan. Permasalahan penghitungan ganda pencegahannya melalui pencatatan unit karbon pada SRN PPI sebelum ditransaksikan, selain itu adanya kewajiban pelaporan yang ketat oleh pelaku usaha. Terakhir, permasalahan peretasan komputer untuk mencuri kredit karbon, pencegahannya dapat diketahui dengan adanya perjanjian antara PBK dan Kustodian Sentral Efek Indonesia, dimana KSEI memiliki fungsi sebagai jasa penyimpanan dan penyelesaian transaksi efek serta menerapkan teknologi keamanan seperti enkripsi data, sistem otentikasi yang kuat, dan pemantauan aktivitas yang mencurigakan.

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This paper analyses the issues and preventive measures related to the implementation of a carbon exchange in Indonesia. This paper employs doctrinal legal research. The challenges in operating a carbon exchange may include issues similar to those in conventional capital markets, such as market manipulation and fraud. Market manipulation in carbon exchange transactions can manifest in practices like painting the tape, cornering the market, and marking the close. Fraud can occur in the issuance of PTBAE-PU and SPE-GRK carbon units. Additionally, specific issues related to carbon exchanges, as experienced by countries with established carbon markets, may also arise in Indonesia, such as greenwashing, double counting, fraud, and cybercrime, including hacking to steal carbon credits. The legal framework for preventing these issues can be derived from the Capital Market Law, as amended by the Financial Sector Development and Reinforcement Law, and the Indonesia Stock Exchange Regulations, which prohibit market manipulation and fraud. Presidential Regulation No. 98/2021 requires independent third-party verifiers and validators. Furthermore, entities engaging in fraud can have their accreditation suspended or revoked by the National Accreditation Committee (KAN). Prevention of greenwashing is addressed through the Consumer Protection Law, which mandates that businesses provide truthful, clear, and honest information about the goods and services offered. Double counting is prevented by recording carbon units in the National Registry System (SRN PPI) before transactions and imposing stringent reporting obligations on businesses. Lastly, the issue of computer hacking to steal carbon credits is mitigated through agreements between the PBK and the Central Securities Depository of Indonesia (KSEI), which functions as a securities storage and settlement service provider and implements security technologies such as data encryption, strong authentication systems, and monitoring of suspicious activities."

"Peningkatan urgensi isu perubahan iklim dalam sistem internasional tidak terlepas dari peran aktor-aktor pasar, sehingga memunculkan solusi iklim berbasis pasar — terutama dalam bentuk perdagangan karbon. Negosiasi dalam Protokol Kyoto hingga Perjanjian Paris turut membahas konsep perdagangan karbon, dan realisasinya telah diimplementasikan dan direncanakan di berbagai yurisdiksi. Dengan melakukan penelusuran terhadap literatur berskala internasional yang telah melalui peer-review, tinjauan pustaka ini berupaya untuk memetakan dan menganalisis 52 literatur yang relevan dengan menggunakan metode taksonomi. Tulisan ini akan menjawab rumusan permasalahan utama, yakni bagaimana perkembangan perdagangan karbon dikaji dalam literatur dan kerangka pemikiran hubungan internasional? Hasil pemetaan literatur menunjukkan adanya konsensus mengenai diskursus iklim dan lingkungan, aspek ekonomi, posisi Uni Eropa, serta sikap skeptis terhadap integritas lingkungan dalam konteks perdagangan karbon. Sementara itu, terdapat perdebatan di antara para akademisi mengenai evaluasi perdagangan karbon sebagai kebijakan lingkungan, potensi linking, peran sektor swasta, dan posisi negara berkembang. Analisis penulis menghasilkan sebuah sintesis umum bahwa pembahasan tentang perdagangan karbon dalam hubungan internasional telah melebur dalam diskursus iklim, dengan kekhasan perdebatan tentang hubungan Utara-Selatan, aspek ekonomi dan pembangunan, serta peran aktor non-negara. Penulis juga menemukan adanya celah penelitian berdasarkan tema dan konteks waktu penulisan, tema yurisdiksi yang dibahas, dan paradigma pemikiran yang digunakan.

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The increasing urgency of the climate change in the international system is inseparable from the role of market actors, giving rise to market-based climate solutions — especially in the form of carbon trading. Negotiations in the Kyoto Protocol to the Paris Agreement have also incorporated the concept of carbon trading, and its realization has been implemented and planned in various jurisdictions. By conducting a search of peer- reviewed international literatures, this literature review seeks to map and analyze 52 relevant literatures using the taxonomic method. This paper will answer the formulation of the main problem, namely, how is the development of carbon trading studied in the literature and framework of international relations? The results of the literature mapping show that there is a consensus regarding the climate and environmental discourse, economic aspects, the position of the European Union, and skepticism about environmental integrity in the context of carbon trading. Meanwhile, debate among academics have revolved around the evaluation of carbon trading as an environmental policy, the potential of linking, the role of the private sector, and the position of developing countries. The author's analysis results in a general synthesis that discussions about carbon trading in international relations have merged into the climate discourse, with the particularity of debates on North-South relations, economic and development aspects, and the role of non-state actors. The author also finds that there are several research gaps based on the theme and context of writing, the jurisdictional themes that have been discussed, and the thought paradigms being used."

"Dalam mencapai cita-cita Net Zero Emission pada tahun 2060, peralihan penggunaan Energi Baru Terbarukan semakin meningkat. Sebagai negara tropis, Indonesia memiliki potensi pengembangan PLTS yang sangat besar senilai 112.000 GWp, ditambah dengan biaya instalasi yang semakin menurun sekitar 78% dari tahun 2015 hingga 2022. Hal ini menjadikan pengembangan PLTS di Indonesia menjadi alternatif EBT yang menarik guna mereduksi emisi karbon di Indonesia dan mencapai Net Zero. Tidak hanya berfokus pada penghijauan, agar produktivitas dan perekonomian tetap meningkat, kebijakan pasar karbon juga menjadi alternatif kebijakan baru yang dapat mendukung transisi Indonesia menuju ekonomi hijau. Dengan instrumen-instrumen tersebut, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis dinamika dan kompleksitas adopsi PLTS di Indonesia dengan pemanfaatan perdagangan karbon menggunakan metode sistem dinamis sebagai metode yang tepat untuk menganalisis suatu sistem yang kompleks.

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In achieving the goal of Net Zero Emission by 2060, the transition to the use of New Renewable Energy is increasing. As a tropical country, Indonesia has the potential for the development of Solar Power Plants (PLTS) on a large scale, amounting to 112,000 GWp, alongwith installation costs decreasing by around 78% from 2015 to 2022. Thus, the development of PLTS in Indonesia become attractive alternative for reducing carbon emissions in the country and achieving Net Zero. Not only focusing on greening, but to ensure productivity and economic growth, carbon market policies also become a new alternative that can support Indonesia's transition to a green economy. With these instruments, this research aims to analyze the dynamics and complexity of PLTS adoption in Indonesia through the utilization of carbon trading using the dynamic system method as an appropriate approach for analyzing a complex system."

"Tesis ini membahas tentang perdagangan karbon kredit sebagai mekanisme/skema penanganan pengurangan emisi gas rumah kaca, dimana masih terdapat pro dan kontra terhadap mekanisme/skema perdagangan karbon kredit ini baik dari sisi substansi maupun pelaksanaan. Oleh karena latar belakang tersebut di atas, maka pokok permasalahan dalam tesis ini adalah melihat konsep perdagangan karbon kredit dalam tinjauan hukum, baik aspek hukum keperdataan dan juga aspek hukum publik. Permasalahan tersebut dibahas menggunakan metode penelitian kepustakaan, sehingga menghasilkan kesimpulan yaitu pada dasarnya mekanisme/skema ini sudah diimplementasikan dan memberikan manfaat meskipun masih terdapat permasalahan-permasalahan yang dapat berpotensi menjadi masalah hukum dan ketidakefektifan skema/mekanisme ini terhadap tujuan diselenggarakannya perdagangan karbon kredit ini.

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This thesis discusses about carbon credit trading as a mechanism/scheme in handling the emission reduction of Green House Gases (GHGs). There are pro & contra exist in substances and implementation of carbon credit trading. From that background situation, this thesis concern about problems of legal aspects in carbon credit trading, including private and public legal aspects. These problems are discussed using library research methods and conclude that basically carbon credit trading is able to implement as a mechanism in GHGs emission reduction, but in other hand there are problems exist which potential to be a legal problems and ineffectiveness of this mechanism to aim its purpose as an emission reduction mechanism."

"Tesis ini membahas kelayakan hukum Karbon (CO2) menjadi objek perdagangan karbon dalam skema mitigasi perubahan iklim dalam kacamata hukum dan etika lingkungan. Penelitian ini adalah penelitian hukum yang bersifat analitis dengan pendekatan normatif. Penelitian ini kemudian menemukan bahwa secara normatif Karbon (CO2) dapat menjadi benda karena Undang-Undang dan menjadi objek perdagangan karbon, namun mengandung sejumlah pertanyaan dalam pendekatan secara etika lingkungan karena merupakan benda milik bersama serta tetap menggunakan pendekatan Antroposentris dalam memposisikan alam diikuti sejumlah masalah teknis kehutanan dan perdagangan.

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This thesis discusses about the legal feasibility of carbon (CO2) become an object to carbon offset in climate change mitigation scheme in legal perspective and environmental ethic. This research is conducted in legal normative methode with analytical aproach. By this research, I found Carbon (CO2) could be defined as a goods, hence it could become an object of carbon offset. However, in perspective of environment ethics there are questions regarding how we see carbon as common property and remain use Anthropocentric approach to observe nature besides other number of technical problems such forestry and trade."

"Carbon pricing merupakan cara yang paling sering dipilih pemerintah suatu negara dalam mengatasi ancaman perubahan iklim. Namun penerapannya seringkali terhambat karena adanya terkait dampaknya terhadap perekonomian. Salah satu bentuk dampak yang belum banyak diteliti adalah terhadap foreign direct investment (FDI). Penelitian ini mencoba menganalisis dampak penerapan carbon pricing terhadap tingkat FDI pada empat negara Asia yang telah menerapkan. Metode yang digunakan adalah Difference-in-Differences dengan menggunakan Synthetic Control Method untuk mengatasi permasalahan parallel trend dalam menetapkan negara yang menjadi counterfactual. Hasil yang didapatkan menunjukkan bahwa carbon pricing berpengaruh negatif signifikan terhadap FDI di Jepang dan Korea, dimana negara yang menerapkan carbon pricing mengalami penurunan jumlah FDI relatif terhadap negara yang tidak menerapkan. Sementara pengaruh tidak signifikan didapatkan pada negara Kazakhstan dan Singapura. Pemerintah perlu mempertimbangkan harga/tarif karbon dan kebijakan yang sesuai untuk mengurangi pengaruh dari penerapan carbon pricing.

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Carbon pricing often chosen by government in dealing with climate change. However, its application is often hampered due to its impact on the economy. One impact that has not been widely studied is on foreign direct investment (FDI). This study analyzes the impact of implementing carbon pricing on the level of FDI in Asian countries that have implemented it. Using Difference-in-Differences and Synthetic Control Method to resolve parallel trend assumption problem in determining countries chosen to be counterfactual. The results indicate that carbon pricing has a significant negative effect on FDI in Japan and Korea, where countries that implement carbon pricing experience a decrease in the amount of FDI relative to countries that do not. While the effect is not significant in Kazakhstan and Singapore. The government needs to consider carbon prices/tariffs and appropriate policies to reduce the effect of implementing carbon pricing."

"This article explains the main competition rules in European Community in general. The basic norm of competition rule in European Community (EC) is determined in article 3 (g) EC Treaty. Article 3 (g) provide that "the institution of a system ensuring that competition in the internal market is not distorted". To ensure workable competition in EC were set out in article 81 and 82 EC Treaty the Competition rule. Article 81 (1) prohibits as incompatible with common market, collusion between undertakings that may affect trade member states and has the object or effect of restricting competition within the common market. But not all agreements that perceptibly restrict competition and may effect inter-state trade are prohibited. Some forms of collaboration restrictive of competition may have beneficial effects and are capable exemption by the Commission. By virtue of article 81 (3) the prohibition in article 81 (1) may be declared inapplicable to any agreements or category of agreements provided that they have certain characteristics. This article will elaborate the prohibition of article 81 (1) and the exemption of article 81 (3) and as well the abuse of dominant position of article 82 EC Treaty."

"Perdagangan internasional sangat vital dalam upaya meningkatkan perekonomian suatu negara. Salah satu bentuk perdagangan internasional adalah ekspor dan impor. Pada suatu negara bila nilai impor melebihi nilai ekspor dan keadaan ini berlangsung cukup lama akan menyebabkan suatu ketidakstabilan perekonomian. Salah satu upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk menghindari hal diatas adalah dengan membuat penghambat impor. Terdapat dua jenis penghambat impor yaitu hambatan tarif dan hambatan non-tarif. Salah satu hambatan non-tarif yang dikenal adalah local content requirement LCR atau di Indonesia dikenal dengan istilah tingkat komponen dalam negeri TKDN . Istilah TKDN di Indonesia dikenal dalam berbagai sektor antara lain: pengadaan barang/jasa pemerintah; pertambangan; ketenagalistrikan; teknologi komunikasi dan informatika; dan perdagangan. Pengaturan TKDN di Indonesia dalam berbagai sektor dinilai tidak sesuai dengan berbagai peraturan internasional baik di tingkat multilateral maupun regional. Pada tingkat multilateral, World Trade Organization WTO , terdapat aturan dalam General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT dan Agreement in Trade-Related Investment Measures TRIMs . Sementara itu pada tingkat regional, Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN , terdapat aturan ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement ATIGA . Pengaturan LCR pada TKDN di Indonesia dan risiko hukumnya merupakan rumusan masalah dalam penelitian ini. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah yuridis normatif dengan jenis data sekunder yang diperoleh dari studi kepustakaan. Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa terdapat ketidaksesuaian antara pengaturan TKDN di Indonesia dalam berbagai sektor dengan GATT, TRIMs, dan ATIGA.

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International trade is vital to improve the economy of a country. One form of international trade is export and import. In a country where import is more than export, and this situation lasts long enough, it will cause an instability of the economy. One thing that can be done to avoid this is to create import barriers. There are two types of import barriers tariff barrier and non tariff barrier NTB . One form of NTB is local content requirement LCR or tingkat komponen dalam negeri TKDN in Indonesia. TKDN is known in various sectors such as government procurement mining electricity information and communication technology and trade. Regulations about TKDN in various sectors are considered contrary to various international regulations, both in multilateral and regional level. At the multilateral level, World Trade Organization WTO , there are General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT and Agreement in Trade Related Investment Measures TRIMs . Meanwhile at the regional level, Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN , there is ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement ATIGA . LCR application in TKDN in Indonesia and its legal risk are the main problems of this research. The method used for this research is a normative juridical with secondary data obtained from study of literature. The conclusion of this research shows that there are inconsistencies between TKDN regulations in Indonesia and GATT, TRIMs, and ATIGA."

"ABSTRAK Recently, trade liberalization issue particularly in agriculture sector has become the main issue in Doha Development Agenda-WTO. Trade liberalization in agriculture sector affected trade flow of primary agriculture products in global market particularly from developing countries to developed countries. This study analyzes the impact of trade liberalization in agriculture sector on macro and economic sectors of Indonesia, using general equilibrium economic model approach by employing GTAP model. It uses the data from the GTAP Version7. The main results show that trade liberalization in agriculture sector benefited developed countries such as the United States of America, Rusia, and European Union. On the other hand, some developing countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia were negatively affected. Furthermore, trade liberalization in agriculture sector reduced output of agriculture sector in Indonesia. Nevertheless, the output of manufacturing sector increased because of reallocation of input factor from agriculture to manufacturing."