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"ABSTRACT

Resistivity surveying is commonly interpreted in term of one dimensional approach, which is based on the assumption that the subsurface consists of a system of parallel, horizontal, homogeneous and isotropic layers. Very often this assumption amounts to a gross simplification of the actual geology. Consequently, 1D-interpretation can not overcome equivalence problems, lateral and vertical in-homogeneity, as well as it can not determine more realistic subsurface structures. However, if we use a two-dimensional approach by making provision for the variation of resistivity in two directions, x and z direction or y and z direction (two-dimensional interpretation), and by assuming that no resistivity variation along the third orientation (i.e. y or x axes), a more realistic model of the subsurface can be constructed.

Fundamental equations, finite-difference equations, numerical algorithm and modification of Fortran computer codes, based on Dey's codes, are described in this Masters Thesis.

The simulations of 2D-resistivity modelling for equivalence problems, lateral and vertical in-homogeneity, as well as case study of 2D-resistivity modelling in determining resistivity structures in Ulubelu Geothermal Prospect, Indonesia, are also presented. It has shown that the limitations of 1D-interpretation can be overcome by using the two-dimensional approach."

"This book presents selected papers presented during the International Symposium on Earthen Structures held in IISc Bangalore. The papers in this volume cover the theme of earthen structures, with technical content on materials and methods, structural design and seismic performance, durability, seismic response, climatic response, hygrothermal performance and durability, design and codes, architecture, heritage and conservation, and technology dissemination. This book will be of use to professionals, academics, and students in architecture and engineering. "

"Metode resistivity dapat memberikan gambaran struktur bawah permukaan yang terdapat cavity . Berdasarkan kondisi geologi pembentukan cavity, daerah prospek "X" ini termasuk dalam sistem sedimen yang didominasi batuan pasir. Pengukuran metode resistivity pada tiap lintasan pengukuran menghasilkan perbedaan nilai hasil pengukuran akibat perbedaan sifat fisik batuan. Akuisisi data metode resistivity telah dilakukan dengan spasi elektroda 5 meter sebanyak 11 lintasan yang bertujuan untuk mendapatkan apparent resistivity. Selanjutnya, untuk mendapatkan true resistivity dengan melakukan proses inversi. Pemodelan 2D dan 3D data resistivity dengan menggunakan software res2dinv, surfer 9, res3dinv, dan GeoSlicer X telah memberikan informasi zona cavity yang terdapat pada daerah pengukuran sehingga daerah prospek dapat dilokalisir.

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Resistivity method can provide a section of the subsurface structure of the cavity contained. Based on the geological conditions of cavity formation, the prospect of "X" is included in the sandstone-dominated sedimentary. Measurement methods of measurement of resistivity in each path leads to different values of measurement results due to differences in physical properties of rocks. Resistivity data acquisition methods have been performed with an electrode spacing of 5 meters by 11 trajectories that aim to obtain apparent resistivity. Furthermore, to obtain the true resistivity is used inversion process. 2D and 3D modeling of data using software res2dinv resistivity, surfer 9, res3dinv, and GeoSlicer X has provided the information contained in the cavity zone measurement area can be localized so that the prospect area."

"Seiring dengan pertumbuhan kebutuhan air penduduk Kabupaten Sumbawa Barat (KSB) yang meningkat, kebutuhan air untuk industri pun juga terus meningkat tiap tahunnya. Industri di KSB berperan penting bagi perekonomian KSB serta menjadi salahsatu proyek strategis nasional. Pemenuhan kebutuhan air bagi industri pun menjadi sangat dibutuhkan untuk menyokong pengembangan industri di KSB. Maka, perlu dilakukan eksplorasi sumber air tanah, salah satunya ialah pencarian lapisan akuifer. Eksplorasi air tanah ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode geolistrik tahanan jenis dengan konfigurasi Wenner-Schlumberger. Lima lintasan dengan 48 buah elektroda disusun dengan jarak spasi antar elektroda sepanjang 20 meter dengan maksud dapat mengidentifikasi lapisan akuifer dalam. Hasil interpretasi menunjukkan keberadaan lapisan akuifer yang diduga memiliki rentang nilai tahanan jenis 10-30 Ωm. Lapisan akuifer tersebut berasosiasi dengan lapisan batuan pasir lempungan dan breksi lapuk serta diklasifikasikan sebagai lapisan akuifer bebas. Lapisan akuifer tersebut juga diduga memiliki lapisan dasar berupa lapisan batuan breksi segar. Lapisan akuifer tersebut tersebar mendominasi wilayah barat area penelitian serta diduga memiliki ketebalan hingga lebih dari 100 meter yang direkomendasikan sebagai wilayah pengeboran untuk melakukan eksplorasi lanjutan dalam identifikasi sumber air tanah si area tersebut.

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Along with the growing water needs of the population of West Sumbawa Regency (KSB), the demand of water for industry also continues to increase every year. Industry in KSB plays an important role in the economy of KSB as well as being one of the national strategic projects. Fulfilling water needs for industry is also very necessary to support industrial development in KSB. So, it is necessary to explore groundwater sources, one of which is the search for aquifer layers. This groundwater exploration was carried out using the resistivity geoelectric method with the Wenner-Schlumberger configuration. Five tracks with 48 electrodes were arranged with a distance between the electrodes of 20 meters to identify the deep aquifer layer. The interpretation results indicate the presence of an aquifer layer which is thought to have resistivity values ranging from 10- 30 Ωm. The aquifer layer is associated with the clayey sand layer and weathered breccia and is classified as an unconfined aquifer layer. The aquifer layer is also thought to have a base layer in the form of fresh breccia rock layers. The aquifer layer is scattered to dominate the western area of the research area and is thought to have a thickness of up to more than 100 meters which is recommended as a drilling area to carry out further exploration in identifying groundwater sources in the area."

"Kabupaten Sumbawa Barat (KSB) telah ditetapkan menjadi salah satu daerah yang kawasaan industrinya akan dikembangkan. Pengembangan tersebut akan didukung oleh penyediaan bahan berupa air baku. Penyediaan air tersebut harus dipenuhi oleh air tanah yang berasal dari akuifer dalam. Lapangan-Y berada di salah satu kawasan industri terbanyak di KSB. Oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukan pencarian akuifer dalam agar pengembangan kawasan industri di daerah ini dapat terwujud. Lapisan dan sebaran akuifer tersebut diidentifikasi menggunakan metode tahanan jenis konfigurasi Wenner-Schlumberger dengan menggunakan 48 elektroda dan jarak spasi 15m. Interpretasi menunjukkan lapisan akuifer memiliki nilai tahanan jenis 10Ωm sampai 20Ωm dengan litologi berupa breksi vulkanik lapuk dengan sisipan batupasir tuf dari satuan batuan gunungapi. Lapisan akuitard memiliki nilai tahanan jenis 4Ωm sampai 10Ωm dengan litologi berupa breksi vulkanik lapuk dengan sisipan tuf pasiran. Lapisan impermeabel yang menjadi batuan dasar memilliki nilai tahanan jenis lebih dari 20Ωm litologi aglomerat. Lapisan akuifer di lapangan-Y tersebar dengan ketebalan 40m sampai lebih dari 100m. Lapisan akuifer paling tebal diindikasikan berada di lintasan 1A04 dengan topografi yang lebih datar dan lapisan aglomerat dasar yang diduga sebagai wadah tempat berkumpulnya air. Rekomendasi titik bor juga direkomendasikan pada jarak 550m di lintasan 4 karena titik tersebut diduga sebagai tempat berkumpulnya air.

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West Sumbawa Regency (KSB) has been designated as one of the areas whose industrial area will be developed. The development will be supported by the provision of water. The water supply must be met by groundwater from deep aquifers. Field-Y is located in one of the most industrial areas in KSB. Therefor, it is necessary to search for deep aquifers so that the development of industrial areas in this area can be realized. The layers and distribution of aquifer were identified using the resistivity method with the Wenner-Schlumberger configuration using 48 electrodes with 15m spacing. The interpretation shows that the aquifer layer has a resistivity value of 10Ωm to 20Ωm with the lithology is weathered volcanic breccia with intercalations of tuffaceous sandstone from volcanic rock units. The Aquitard layer has a resistivity value of 4Ωm to 10Ωm with the lithology is weathered volcanic breccia with sandy tuff intercalations. The impermeable layer that becomes the bedrock has a resistivity value of more than 20Ωm with agglomerate lithology. The aquifer layer in the Y-field is spread with a thickness of 40m to more than 100m. The thickest aquifer layer is indicated to be on track 1A04 with a flatter topography and a bottom agglomerate layer which is thought to be a catchment area. The recommended drill point is also recommended at a distance of 550m on track 4 because that point is suspected to be a catchment area."

"Penelitian yang bertujuan untuk memodelkan lapisan batubara di Kecamatan Nyuatan, Kabupaten Kutai Barat, Provinsi Kalimantan Timur ini dilakukan dengan metode resistivitas menggunakan konfigurasi Wenner. Survei lintasan pada penelitian ini berjumlah sembilan buah dengan jumlah elektroda setiap lintasan sebanyak 48 buah, spasi lintasan sebesar 5 m, dan panjang lintasan sebesar 235 m. Penelitian ini didukung dengan adanya data singkapan batubara di sejumlah titik elektroda untuk menambah tingkat validitas pada tahap interpretasi. Hasil interpretasi resistivitas 2D menunjukkan bahwa daerah penelitan terdiri atas zona resistivitas sangat rendah, rendah, menengah, tinggi, dan sangat tinggi. Zona resistivitas sangat rendah sebagai lapisan batulempung dengan nilai 17-83 Ωm, zona resistivitas rendah sebagai lapisan batulanau dengan nilai 83-103 Ωm, zona resistivitas menengah sebagai lapisan batupasir dengan nilai 120-900 Ωm, zona resistivitas tinggi sebagai lapisan batubara dengan nilai 900-1500 Ωm, dan zona resistivitas sangat tinggi sebagai lapisan konglomerat dengan nilai >1500 Ωm. Ditemukan keberadaan batubara dengan tebal mencapai 10 m atau lebih pada lintasan 1, lintasan 5, lintasan 6, dan lintasan 7. Besar total volume lapisan batubara di daerah penelitian yang didapatkan mencapai 616,158.2 ton. Hasil analisis berdasarkan karakteristik fisik batubara dan nilai resistivitas menunjukkan bahwa batubara di daerah penelitian berupa subbituminous.

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The research aimed at modeling coal seams in Nyuatan District, West Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan Province was carried out using the resistivity method using the Wenner configuration. There are nine trajectory surveys in this study with 48 electrodes per trajectory, 5 m spacing, and 235 m long trajectory. This research is supported by the existence of coal outcrop data with number of electrode points to increase the level of validity at the interpretation stage. The results of the 2D resistivity interpretation show that the research area consists of very low, low, medium, high, and very high resistivity zones. Very low resistivity zone as a layer of claystone with a value of 17-83 Ωm, low resistivity zone as a layer of siltstone with a value of 83-103 Ωm, medium resistivity zone as a layer of sandstone with a value of 120-900 Ωm, zone of high resistivity as a layer of coal with a value of 900- 1500 Ωm, and a very high resistivity zone as a conglomerate layer with a value of >1500 Ωm. Coal with a thickness of 10 m or more was found on line 1, line 5, line 6, and line  7. The total volume of coal seams in the research area is 616,158.2 tonne. The results of the analysis based on the physical characteristics of the coal and the resistivity value show that the coal in the study area is sub-bituminous."

"Penurunan tanah memiliki dampak yang besar terhadap infrastruktur seperti mengubah geometri permukaan. Pergerakan turunnya tanah secara vertikal (subsidence) merupakan salah satu dari banyak faktor yang menyebabkan kerusakan infrastruktur baik yang diakibatkan oleh pergerakan secara alami seperti gempa ataupun buatan seperti aktivitas pertambangan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk analisis penyebab subsidence melalui pemodelan 2D tomografi seismik dan 3D tomografi resistivitas di Perumahan Tranquility, Depok.  Metode tomografi seismik refraksi yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi zona subsidence berdasarkan parameter kecepatan tanah sedangkan tomografi resistivitas bertujuan untuk melihat distribusi anomaly resistivitas zona rawan subsidence. Di lokasi terjadinya subsidence telah dilakukan pengambilan data seismik refraksi dan data geolistrik resistivitas ERT. Nilai waktu tiba (arrival time) dari data seismik refraksi digunakan sebagai parameter dalam proses tomografi waktu tunda. Hasil dari pengolahan seismik refraksi berupa model kecepatan (velocity map) lapisan bawah permukaan dan grafik waktu versus jarak dari waktu tersimulasi dan waktu terobservasi di setiap lintasan refraksi. Kemudian, hasil pengolahan tomografi seismik di korelasikan dengan data pengolahan ERT berupa penampang sebaran resistivitas bawah permukaan. Analisis hasil pengolahan kedua data tersebut didapatkan bahwa terdapat 3 tipe lapisan yaitu lapisan batuan lepas (unconsolidated sediment/loose soil), lapisan batuan pasir-kerikil (sandy gravel), dan lapisan akuifer dengan kemungkinan batuan silt-clay. Lapisan batuan lepas dengan kedalaman 0-6 meter mengalami penebalan dari arah barat daya hingga timur laut dengan ketebalan rata-rata 4 meter dan memiliki nilai resistivitas antara 17-35 ohm.m dan kecepatan rambat gelombangnya 300-340. Lapisan batuan pasir-kerikil dengan kedalaman 6-12 meter dan ketebalan nya meningkat dari arah timur laut hingga barat daya. Lapisan ini memiliki nilai resistivitas 55-110 ohm.m dan kecepatan rambat gelombangnya > 340. Lapisan akuifer berada pada kedalaman 13-30 meter dengan geometri panjang 40 meter dengan nilai resistivitas 0-15 ohm.m. Lapisan akuifer ini diinterpretasikan sebagai lapisan tipe batuan silt-clay. Geometri dari lapisan batuan pasir-kerikil lintasan ERT menunjukan adanya proses pensesaran tektonik minor/zona fraktur pada bagian barat daya dan timur laut dengan ciri blok respon resistivitas yang menebal dan diskontinyu. Geometri dari pensesaran ini termodelkan dalam model resistivitas 3D.

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Subsidence has major impacts on infrastructure such as changing surface geometry. Vertical subsidence movement is one of the many factors that cause damage to infrastructure whether caused by natural movements such as earthquakes or artificial movements such as mining activities. This research aims to analyze the causes of subsidence through 2D seismic tomography and 3D resistivity tomography modeling in Tranquility Housing, Depok.  The refraction seismic tomography method carried out in this study aims to identify subsidence zones based on ground velocity parameters while resistivity tomography aims to see the distribution of resistivity anomalies in subsidence-prone zones. At the location of subsidence, refraction seismic data and ERT resistivity geoelectric data have been collected. The arrival time value of refraction seismic data is used as a parameter in the time-delay tomography process. The refraction seismic processing results in a velocity map of the subsurface and a time versus distance graph of the simulated and observed times in each refraction trajectory. Then, the results of seismic tomography processing are correlated with ERT processing data in the form of subsurface resistivity distribution cross-sections. Analysis of the results of the processing of the two data obtained that there are 3 types of layers: unconsolidated sediment/loose soil layer, sandy gravel layer, and aquifer layer with possible silt - clay rocks. The loose rock layer with a depth of 0-6 meters thickens from the southwest to the northeast with an average thickness of 4 meters and has a resistivity value between 17 - 35 ohm.m and a wave propagation speed of 300 - 340  The sand-gravel layer is 6-12 meters deep and its thickness increases from the northeast to the southwest. This layer has a resistivity value of 55-110 ohm.m and a wave propagation velocity of > 340 m  The aquifer layer is at a depth of 13-30 meters with a geometry length of 40 meters with a resistivity value of 0-15 ohm.m. This aquifer layer is interpreted as a silt-clay rock type layer. The geometry of the ERT track sand-gravel layer shows a minor tectonic faulting process/fracture zone in the southwest and northeast with thickened and discontinuous resistivity response blocks. The geometry of this faulting is modeled in the 3D model."

"Penelitian dilakukan di Jalan Raya Siliwangi, Kecamatan Semarang Barat, Kota Semarang dengan metode geolistrik resistivitas konfigurasi dipole-dipole. Daerah penelitian merupakan jalan raya poros antarprovinsi yang memiliki intensitas penggunaan yang tinggi, baik oleh kendaraan dengan beban ringan maupun beban yang berlebih. Faktor tersebut merupakan salah satu faktor yang dapat memicu tingginya kerentanan tanah terhadap kerusakan jalan akibat dari ketidakstabilan tanah. Selain itu, terbentuknya zona lemah di bawah permukaan, yang merupakan zona batuan dengan nilai resistivitas rendah dan porositas tinggi, juga dapat menjadi faktor ketidakstabilan tanah. Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan tujuan memetakan struktur bawah tanah dan mengidentifikasi persebaran dan jenis litologi penyusun zona lemah di daerah penelitian. Pengukuran dilakukan pada 6 lintasan dan pengolahan data dilakukan dengan metode inversi dua dimensi menggunakan software Res2DInv. Hasil pengolahan data resistivitas dikorelasikan dengan peta geologi regional, klasifikasi nilai resistivitas batuan, dan data bor SPT. Dari hasil analisis 6 lintasan, teridentifikasi persebaran zona lemah yang tersusun dari litologi lempung dengan nilai resistivitas <10 qm dan lempung pasiran yang memiliki nilai resistivitas pada rentang 10--20 qm.

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The research was carried out on Jalan Raya Siliwangi, West Semarang Subistrict, Semarang City using the dipole-dipole configuration resistivity geoelectric method. The research area is an inter-provincial highway which has a high intensity of use, both by vehicles with light loads and heavy loads. This factor is one of the factors that can trigger the high vulnerability of land to road damage due to soil instability. Apart from that, the formation of weak zones below the surface, which are rock zones with low resistivity values and high porosity, can also be a factor in soil instability. This research was carried out with the aim of mapping underground structures and identifying the distribution and types of lithology that make up weak zones in the research area. Measurements were carried out on 6 trajectories and data processing was carried out using the two-dimensional inversion method using Res2DInv software. The results of resistivity data processing are correlated with regional geological map, classification of rock resistivity values, and SPT drill data from the results of the 6 tracks analysis, the distribution of weak zones was identified which were composed of clay lithology with resistivity values of <10 qm and sandy clay which had a resistivity value in the range of 10-20 qm."

"Peningkatan populasi dan pembangunan di Kecamatan Gedebage, Kota Bandung sejalan dengan kebutuhan air untuk keperluan rumah tangga dan komersial. Penelitian geofisika yang menggunakan metode geolistrik Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) 1D di Kecamatan Gedebage ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi dan memetakan potensi air tanah (akuifer) secara 1D, 2D, plane view, dan 3D. Metode VES adalah metode geofisika aktif untuk memahami distribusi nilai resistivitas bawah tanah secara vertikal. Nilai resistivitas hasil pengukuran kemudian diolah dan diinterpolasi menggunakan metode Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) untuk mengetahui persebarannya. IDW sendiri merupakan metode interpolasi merupakan teknik estimasi nilai pada lokasi tak terukur dengan memberikan bobot yang lebih besar pada titik data terdekat, di mana bobot tersebut berbanding terbalik dengan jarak dari titik estimasi. Hasil interpretasi menunjukkan adanya lima jenis litologi, termasuk tanah (9,419 – 260,5 Ωm), pasir (0,3003 – 131,3 Ωm), lempung (2,009 – 64,29 Ωm), lanau (0,2245 – 251,5 Ωm), dan batu pasir (3,905 – 32 Ωm), di mana batu pasir dan pasir yang memiliki potensi sebagai akuifer menjadi target utama penelitian ini. Selain itu, didapatkan bahwa akuifer yang terbagi menjadi tipe bebas pada kedalaman 1,065 – 14,78 meter dan tertekan pada kedalaman 10,83 – 70 meter, dibatasi oleh akuiklud yang tersebar di wilayah penelitian. Mengacu kepada peta geologi dan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan, didapatkan bahwa wilayah penelitian memiliki potensi air tanah yang cukup signifikan.

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The population growth and development in Gedebage District, Bandung City, parallel the

increasing demand for water for household and commercial needs. This geophysical study

using the 1D Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) geoelectric method in Gedebage District

aims to identify and map groundwater potential (aquifers) in 1D, 2D, plane view, and 3D.

The VES method is an active geophysical technique used to understand the vertical

distribution of subsurface resistivity values. The measured resistivity values are then

processed and interpolated using the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method to

determine their distribution. IDW is an interpolation method that estimates values at

unmeasured locations by assigning greater weight to nearer data points, with weights

inversely proportional to the distance from the estimation point. Interpretation results

indicate the presence of five lithology types, including soil (9.419 – 260.5 Ωm), sand

(0.3003 – 131.3 Ωm), clay (2.009 – 64.29 Ωm), silt (0.2245 – 251.5 Ωm), and sandstone

(3.905 – 32 Ωm), with sandstone and sand, which have the potential as aquifers, being

the main targets of this research. Additionally, it was found that aquifers are divided into

unconfined types at depths of 1.065 – 14.78 meters and confined types at depths of 10.83

– 70 meters, bounded by aquicludes spread across the study area. From the geological

finding and processed geophysical data, this research concludes that this area of study

may contain significant potential of groundwater."