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Penelitian ini menganalisis dampak dari perdagangan internasional dan persaingan industri terhadap kesenjangan upah pekerja terampil dan tidak terampil di industri manufaktur Indonesia. Menggunakan data panel tingkat perusahaan yaitu data Statistik Industri Besar dan Sedang (IBS) dari BPS dan data upah minimum provinsi dari Kementerian Tenaga Kerja dan Transmigrasi. Modifikasi model dilakukan pada pengelompokan industri yang berbeda, yaitu industri manufaktur secara umum, manufaktur padat karya dan manufaktur padat modal. Analisis empiris disajikan dalam penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan perdagangan internasional bekontribusi pada penurunan kesenjangan upah terampil dan tidak terampil di industri manufaktur Indonesia. Namun peningkatan persaingan industri memberikan dampak yang sebaliknya. Selain itu penelitian ini melakukan analisis perbandingan dampak dari perdagangan internasional dan persaingan industri pada industri padat karya dan padat modal.

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This paper analyzes the impact of international trade and industrial competition on skilled–unskilled wage inequality in Indonesia’s manufacturing industry. By making use of firm level panel data which are industri statistic from BPS, minimum wage from Ministry of Labor. Modifying the model for different group, which are manufacturing industry in general, labor-intensive and capital-intensive manufacturing. The empirical analysis presented in this paper shows that international trade has contributed to an decrease in skilled–unskilled wage inequality in Indonesia's manufacturing industry. However, increase in industrial competition has the opposite effect. In addition, this study also analyzes the impact of international trade and industrial competition on labor-intensive and capital-intensive industries.

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"Studi ini mengkaji bagaimana peningkatan perdagangan internasional telah memengaruhi dinamika kesenjangan upah antar jenis kelamin dan share employment di industri manufaktur di Indonesia hingga 2003 hingga 2015. Teori Discrimination Taste oleh Becker (1957) dan menyatakan bahwa perdagangan internasional adalah mekanisme untuk meningkatkan daya saing di pasar sehingga peningkatan perdagangan internasional akan mengurangi kesenjangan upah antar tenaga kerja laki-laki dan perempuan karena diskriminasi bersifat costly untuk industri. Di sisi lain, teori non neoklasik berpendapat bahwa perdagangan internasional berakibat kepada melebarnya ketimpangan upah dikarenakan adanya segregasi pekerjaan diantara skilled dan unskilled labor. Penulis memasukkan ide dari kedua teori ini ke dalam model teori persaingan dan konsentrasi industri dan menguji model tersebut menggunakan data panel dari data survei rumah tangga Sakernas yang digabung dengan data perdagangan dan konsentrasi dari Statistik Industri dari 2003-2015. Perkiraan dari Ordinary Least Square (OLS) dan random effect di tingkat industri menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan daya saing di dalam pasar karena perdagangan internasional membuat tingkat kesenjangan upah di industri manufaktur terkonsentrasi di Indonesia menjadi semakin lebar.

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This study examines how increasing trade in manufacturing industry in Indonesia through 2003 to 2015 have affected the dynamic of the gender wage gap and share employment. The Discrimination Taste theory by Becker (1957) stated that international trade is a mechanism for the competitiveness in the market hence the increasing of trade will decrease the gender wage gap since it is costly for the industry. On the other hand, non-neoclassical theory argues that international trade results in widening wage inequality due to the segregation of work between skilled and unskilled labor. We incorporate these two ideas into a theoritical model of competition and industry concentration and test the model using panel data of Sakernas household survey data merged with trade and concentration data from Statistik Industri from 2003-2015. Estimates from ordinary least-squares (OLS) and random effects regressions at the industry-level indicate that increasing openness to trade is associated with larger wage gaps in Indonesias concentrated manufacturing industries."

"ABSTRAKTeori Human Capital mengatakan bahwa tenaga kerja yang berpendidikan lebih tinggi akan mendapatkan upah yang lebih besar karena mereka memiliki produktivitas yang lebih tinggi. Namun bukti empiris menunjukkan peningkatan produktivitas tidak diikuti oleh peningkatan upah. Hal tersebut menggambarkan adanya degree of monopsony yang dimiliki perusahaan. Degree of monopsony dapat bervariasi antar sektor karena antar sektor memiliki karakteristik yang berbeda. Penelitian ini meneliti adanya degree of monopsony yang berbeda antar sektor dengan cara melihat hubungan antara komposisi tenaga kerja berdasarkan level pendidikan terhadap productivity-pay gap/rent sharing yang didapatkan oleh perusahaan pada industri manufaktur Indonesia pada kurun waktu 1996 dan 2006. Pengukuran rent sharing mengikuti metode Ours Stoeldraijer 2011 dan Kampelmann et.al 2018 yaitu selisih antara produktivitas tenaga kerja dengan rata-rata pengeluaran upah tenaga kerja yang dibayarkan oleh perusahaan. Penelitian ini menggunakan pooled cross section data yang dikontrol dengan dummy tahun, dan diestimasi menggunakan metode Ordinary Least Square OLS . Hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa sebagian sektor industri manufaktur memiliki degree of monopsony terhadap tenaga kerja yang berpendidikan menengah dan tinggi, ditunjukkan dengan rent sharing positif yang didapatkan perusahaan jika menggantikan tenaga kerja yang berpendidikan rendah dengan tenaga kerja yang berpendidikan menengah dan tinggi. Semakin tinggi level teknologi produksi suatu sektor maka semakin besar degree of monopsony sektor tersebut terhadap tenaga kerja yang berpendidikan tinggi.

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ABSTRACTHuman capital theory suggest that more educated worker would received higher payment because more productive than less educated worker. But empirical studies show increased productivity not in line with the increase in wage. This phenomenon reflects the existence of degree of monopsony owned by the company. Degree of monopsony can vary between sectors because the inter sector has different characteristics. This study examined the existence of different degree of monopsony between sectors by looking at the relationship between labor composition based on educational level on productivity pay gap rent sharing obtained by companies in Indonesian manufacturing industry during 1996 and 2006. We use method of Ours Stoeldraijer 2011 and Kampelmann et.al 2018 to measure rent sharing. This study use pooled cross section of data controlled by year dummy, and estimated using the Ordinary Least Square OLS method. The results show that some manufacturing industry sectors have a degree of monopsony for medium and high education workers, indicated by the positive rent sharing that firms earn when replacing a low educated workforce with a high and middle education workforce. The higher the level of production technology of a sector, the greater the degree of monopsony of the sector to a highly educated workforce. "

"Disertasi ini menganalisis pengaruh liberalisasi perdagangan  yang diukur dengan tarif barang final terhadap ketimpangan upah antarindustri (industry wage premium) pada sektor manufaktur di Indonesia. Selain itu penelitian ini juga mengukur ketimpangan upah antara pekerja terampil dan tidak terampil dalam suatu industri (industry-specific skill premium) untuk karakteristik pekerja yang identik. Metode estimasi yang digunakan adalah estimasi dua tahap (Haisken-DeNew & Schmidt, 1997; Krueger & Summers, 1988). Pada tahap pertama mengestimasi industry wage premium dan  industry-specific skill premium dengan cara meregresikan upah terhadap karakteristik pekerja, dummy industri dan interaksi antara dummy industri dengan dummy tingkat keterampilan pekerja. Estimator koefisien dummy industri merupakan industry wage premium dan koefisien interaksi antara dummy industri dengan dummy tingkat keterampilan pekerja merupakan industry-specific skill premium. Data yang digunakan adalah data Survei Angkatan Kerja Nasional tahun 2000 sampai dengan  2015. Pada tahap kedua meregresikan industry wage premium dan industry-specific skill premium masing-masing terhadap tarif. Penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa liberalisasi perdagangan mengurangi industry wage premium dan liberalisasi perdagangan meningkatkan industry-specific skill premium. Kebijakan perdagangan di Indonesia dimana proteksi lebih tinggi pada industri yang unskilled labor-intensive dibanding industri yang skilled labor-intensive akan mengurangi ketimpangan upah antar industri, namun meningkatkan ketimpangan upah antara pekerja terampil dan tidak terampil dalam suatu industri.

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This study analyzes the effect of trade liberalization on wage inequality through industry wage premium and industry-specific skill premium in Indonesian manufacturing sectors. The empirical study is conducted in two stages of estimation approach (Haisken-DeNew & Schmidt, 1997; Krueger & Summers, 1988). Using the survey of labor force dataset from the Sakernas (Survei Angkatan Kerja Nasional - Labor Force Survey), first, the study estimates industry wage premiums and industry-specific skill premium conditional on characteristics of the individual worker. In the second stage, the study regresses industry wage premium and industry-specific skill premium on tariff as a measure of trade liberalisation, respectively. The study finds trade liberalization decreases industry wage premium and increases industry-specific skill premium. So, Indonesia needs to be selective in implementing trade liberalization. Higher protection policies in the unskilled labor-intensive sector than the skilled labor-intensive sector will reduce wage inequality between industries. But on the contrary, it will increase wage inequality between skilled and unskilled workers in an industry."

"ABSTRAKTeori diskriminasi Becker (1957) memprediksi bahwa peningkatan persaingan di pasarbarang akan mengurangi diskriminasi. Untuk menguji teori tersebut, penelitian inimengestimasi dampak peningkatan penetrasi impor pada diskriminasi upah gender diIndustri manufaktur Indonesia dari 2000 sampai 2014. Diskriminasi upah gender diukurdengan perubahan residual gender wage gap. Hasil uji empiris menggunakanmenunjukkan bahwa diskriminasi upah gender cenderung menjadi lebih rendah di sektoryang mengalami peningkatan penetrasi impor lebih tinggi dan pada awalnya memilikimarket power lebih besar.

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ABSTRACTBeckers discrimination theory (1957) predicts that the rise of competition in final goodswill drive out discrimination. To test this theory, this study estimates the impact of risingimport penetration on gender wage discrimination in Indonesian manufacturingindustries from 2000 to 2014. Gender wage discrimination is proxied by change inresidual gender wage gap. Empirical result suggests that the bigger market power, thebigger impact of rising import penetration on narrowing residual gender wage gap. Thisresult can be interpreted as lower gender wage discrimination in sector which is moreexposed to import penetration and initially has bigger market power."

"[ABSTRAKPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis dampak perdagangan internasional terhadap kesenjangan gender di sektor manufaktur di Indonesia berdasarkan teori Becker. Menurut teori ini, perdagangan internasional meningkatkan persaingan industri dan pada gilirannya menurunkan diskriminasi gender. Ini merupakan studi tingkat industri yang membandingkan efek dari perdagangan internasional pada kesenjangan upah gender dan lapangan kerja perempuan dalam industri yang kompetitif dan industri terkonsentrasi.Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa perdagangan internasional menurunkan ketidaksetaraan gender dalam industri terkonsentrasi karena menurunkan kesenjangan upah gender dan meningkatkan lapangan kerja perempuan. Sementara itu, ketidaksetaraan gender memburuk dalam industri kompetitif karena perdagangan meningkatkan kesenjangan upah gender dan mengurangi tenaga kerja perempuan.;

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ABSTRACTThis research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment;This research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment;This research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment;This research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment, This research aims to analyze the impact of international trade on gender inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector based on Becker's theory. According to this theory, international trade boosts industry competition and in turn lowers gender discrimination. This is an industry-level study that compares the effects of international trade on gender wage gap and female employment in competitive industries and concentrated industries.The results of the analysis indicate international trade alleviate gender inequality in concentrated industry because it lowers gender wage gap and increases female employment. Meanwhile, gender inequality worsened in competitive industry because trade increase gender wage gap and reduce female employment]"

"Kawasan industri diyakini dapat mendukung perkembangan sektor industri dengan memberikan tingkat produktivitas yang lebih tinggi (Barbieri et al., 2012; Hashino and Otsuka, 2013; Santipolvut and Mali, 2015; Nazarczuk, 2017). Selain tingkat produktivitas, kawasan industri juga dapat mendorong aktivitas perdagangan internasional, terutama ekspor (Sabri et al., 2018). Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi hubungan antara kawasan industri dengan tingkat produktivitas dan kegiatan ekspor pada studi kasus perusahaan manufaktur di Indonesia. Penelitian ini memperkenalkan penggunaan dari entropy balancing, salah satu teknik matching methods. Unit analis dari penelitian ini adalah level data perusahaan. Treatment (perlakuan) dari penelitian ini adalah ketika perusahaan berada di kawasan industri. Terdapat dua outcome variables yakni tingkat produktivitas dan aktivitas ekspor. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa berada di Kawasan Industri mendorong tingkat produktivitas, namun gagal untuk mempromosikan kegiatan ekspor. Karenanya, untuk mempromosikan ekspor, pemerintah dapat menginisiasi alternatif kebijakan orientasi ekspor lainnya.

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Many believe the industrial estate could encourage industry sector by giving higher productivity level (Barbieri et al., 2012; Hashino and Otsuka, 2013; Santipolvut and Mali, 2015; Nazarczuk, 2017). Besides the productivity level, being the industrial estate could help the country to boost international trade activity, particularly export (Sabri et al., 2018). The paper contributes to the related study by examining the relationship between an industrial estate and both productivity level and export activity in the case of Indonesian Manufacturing Firms.

The paper introduces the practice of entropy balancing, one of matching methods. Unit of analysis of the paper is firm-level data. The treatment is when the firms being in the industrial estate. There are two outcome variables which are productivity level and export activity. The result found that being industrial estate improves firms productivity, yet it fails to promote export activity. Hence, to promote exports, the central authority should take some alternative export-oriented policies. "

"Adanya perjanjian Asean-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA) telah meningkatkan persentase impor produk manufaktur asal Cina di Indonesia. Akibatnya, kompetisi produk yang dihasilkan industri manufaktur domestik dengan produk impor dari Cina semakin meningkat. Persaingan dari produk impor Cina diukur menggunakan penetrasi impor, dimana cara pengukurannya diperkenalkan oleh Bernard, Jensen, & Schott (2006). Tesis ini mengestimasi dampak penetrasi impor dari Cina terhadap upah industri manufaktur di Indonesia dengan menggunakan model fixed effect. Hasil estimasi menunjukkan bahwa penetrasi impor dari Cina berdampak negatif terhadap upah industri manufaktur.

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The existence of the Asean-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA) agreement has increased the percentage of imports of Chinese manufactured products in Indonesia. Consequently, the competition of products produced by the domestic manufacturing industry with imported products from china is increasing (assuming the products produced by the domestic manufacturing industry may be substituted with imported products from China in the domestic market). Competition from imported products from China is measured using import penetration, where the measurement method is introduced by Bernard, Jensen, & Schott (2006). This thesis estimates the effects of import from China on wages of manufacturing industry in Indonesia by using fixed effect model. The estimation results show that import penetration from China has a negative effect on wage of manufacturing industry."

"Kesenjangan upah antar gender telah menjadi polemik di seluruh negara di dunia, terutama negara berkembang. Upah minimum hadir sebagai kebijakan tentang sistem pengupahan yang bertujuan untuk menjadi safety net bagi para pekerja. Meskipun kebijakan ini bukannlah kebijakan yang berorientasi pada gender, namun jika jumlah wanita dan jarak upah aktual terhadap upah minimum yang diterima oleh wanita lebih rendah dibandingkan pria, maka upah minimum dapat memperbaki gender wage gap. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk melihat dampak dari kenaikan upah minimum terhadap kesenjangan upah antar gender di seluruh provinsi di Indonesia dengan menggunakan metode kontrafaktual pada distribusi upah. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa dampak upah minimum di Indonesia justru memperlebar gap upah antar gender terutama pada pekerja di distribusi upah rendah. Dampak upah minium di level regional bervariasi antar provinsi.

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Wage gap disparities have become polemic in almost all countries in the world, especially in developing countries. Minimum wage is present as a policy on wage system that aims to be a safety net for workers. Although this policy is not a gender oriented policy, if the number of women and the actual wage distance of women 39 s minimum wage is lower than that of men, then the minimum wage may raise the wage gap.

This study aims to examine the impact of minimum wage increases on wage gap across all provinces in Indonesia by using counterfactual methods on wage distribution. The results of this study indicate that the impact of minimum wages in Indonesia actually widen the wage gap between the gender especially on workers in the distribution of low wages. The impact of regional minium wages varies across provinces."

"Penelitian ini menunjukkan bukti empiris mengenai dampak Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK) pada ketimpangan pendapatan di sektor manufaktur Indonesia. Saat ini, ada perbedaan jelas antara pendapatan pekerja produksi berketerampilan rendah dengan pendapatan pekerja non-produksi berketerampilan tinggi di sektor ini. Tingkat penggunaan TIK pada suatu perusahaan manufaktur menjadi indikator awal paparan Industri 4.0 di sektor. Dengan peta jalan Making Indonesia 4.0, pemerintah Indonesia telah mengidentifikasi sektor manufaktur berorientasi ekspor sebagai mesin pertumbuhan ekonomi. Agar kompetitif secara global, sektor ini harus meningkatkan penggunaan TIK. Penelitian-penelitian sebelumnya menemukan bahwa penggunaan teknologi lebih tinggi dapat menyebabkan peningkatan ketimpangan pendapatan disebabkan oleh turunnya permintaan terhadap pekerja produksi berketerampilan rendah. Menggunakan data dari dua survey BPS untuk tahun 2014: Survei Tahunan Perusahaan Industri Manufaktur dan Survei Penggunaan dan Pemanfaatan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi Sektor Bisnis, penelitian ini bermaksud untuk menunjukkan hubungan ini. Ini dilakukan melalui penetapan index penggunaan TIK pada tiap perusahaan yang kemudian diregresikan dengan proporsi pekerjaan dan pendapatan pekerja produksi di perusahaan manufaktur. Dari hasil analisa, ditemukan adanya turunnya permintaan atas pekerja produksi berketerampilan rendah secara relatif terhadap permintaan atas pekerja produksi berketerampilan tinggi, beriringan dengan tingkat penggunaan TIK lebih tinggi di perusahaan.

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This study provides empirical evidence of the impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has on wage inequality in Indonesian manufacturing sector. Currently, there is clear discrepancy in wage between low-skill production workers and high-skill non-production workers within the sector. The level of ICT use in a manufacturing firm serves as early indicator of Industry 4.0 exposure on the sector. With Making Indonesia 4.0 Roadmap, the government of Indonesia has identified the export-oriented manufacturing sector as an engine of growth. To ensure global competitiveness, this sector must embrace greater ICT integration. Previous studies have shown that greater technology use may cause greater wage inequality due to lower demand of low-skill production workers. Using data from two BPS surveys for year 2014: the Annual Manufacturing Survey and the Business Sector ICT Use Survey, this study aims to show this relationship in Indonesia by developing and assigning ICT use index on manufacturing firms and regressing the index against production workers' employment and wage shares in the firm. From this analysis, there is evidence of decreasing demand for low-skill production workers relative to the demand for high-skill non-production workers, with higher level of ICT use in a firm."