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"Suksesi negara terjadi saat kedaulatan atas suatu wilayah berpindah dari satu negara ke negara lain. Suksesi negara bisa berbentuk suksesi negara parsial (bila negara pendahulu masih ada setelah suksesi negara) atau suksesi negara universal (bila negara penerus lenyap). Hukum kebiasaan internasional menyatakan bahwa pembagian utang antara negara-negara yang terlibat dalam kejadian suksesi negara harus dilakukan berdasarkan prinsip equity. Equity menyatakan bahwa pengaplikasian hukum harus dilakukan dengan tujuan mencapai keadilan sejati bagi semua pihak yang terlibat. Ia merupakan sumber hukum internasional sebagai salah satu general principles of law. Penerapan equity seringkali melibatkan unsur equivalence, proportionality, dan finality. Dalam beberapa kasus, negara penerus setuju untuk menanggung odious debt, utang yang sebelumnya digunakan oleh negara pendahulu untuk kegiatan yang merugikan penduduk negara penerus. Penulis menerapkan metode penelitian kualitatif dengan pendekatan yuridis normatif untuk menganalisis apakah prinsip equity telah diterapkan dalam kasus suksesi negara yang melibatkan odious debt. Penulis berkesimpulan bahwa penerapan equity tidak dilakukan secara sempurna, terutama dalam kasus Uni Soviet, dikarenakan adanya aspek-aspek equity yang tidak dipenuhi dalam implementasinya.

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State succession occurs when sovereignty over a territory is transferred between states. State succession may occur in the form of partial state succession (if the predecessor state still exists following state succession) or universal state succession (if the successor state is extinguished). Customary international law dictates that the apportionment of debt between states involved in state succession must be done according to equity. Equity states that the application of law must be done to achieve true justice for all. It is a source of international law as a general principle of law. The application of equity often involves the aspects of equivalence, proportionality, and finality. In some cases, a successor state agrees to bear debt used by the predecessor state to hurt the population of the successor state. The writer applies the normative juridical approach on qualitative research to analyse whether equity has been applied in state succession cases in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia which involve odious debt. The writer concludes that the application of equity is imperfect, particularly in the Soviet case, as aspects of equity were not always implemented."

"Amerika Serikat mengenal equitable subordination dan debt recharacterization sebagai doktrin yang bertujuan memastikan perlindungan bagi para kreditur dari tindakan tidak adil yang dilakukan oleh kreditur (terutama pemegang saham kreditur) lainnya. Di sisi lain, Indonesia tidak mengenal doktrin-doktrin ini. Namun, Mahkamah Agung dalam Putusan No. 1038 K/Pdt.Sus/2010 telah menerapkan doktrin debt recharacterization terhadap pinjaman pemegang saham dengan mengacu pada UU KPKPU dan, khususnya, Pasal 3 ayat (2) UU PT. Walaupun demikian, kedua instrumen hukum tersebut tidak mengatur secara eksplisit mengenai penerapan doktrin debt recharacterization. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini akan menganalisis (1) pengaturan dan penerapan doktrin debt recharacterization di Indonesia; (2) pengaturan dan penerapan doktrin equitable subordination dan debt recharacterization di Amerika Serikat; serta (3) perbandingan pengaturan dan penerapan kedua doktrin tersebut di Indonesia dan Amerika Serikat. Melalui penelitian dengan metode yuridis normatif dan pendekatan kualitatif, dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut. Pertama, hukum kepailitan di Indonesia memberikan perlindungan bagi para kreditur dalam memperoleh hak mereka dan pencegahan tindakan debitur yang merugikan kreditur. Dalam hal ini, penerapan doktrin debt recharacterization memberikan dimensi perlindungan tambahan, yakni pencegahan tindakan pemegang saham kreditur yang merugikan kreditur lainnya. Kedua, hukum kepailitan Indonesia tidak mengatur secara eksplisit mengenai doktrin debt recharacterization, tetapi Mahkamah Agung telah memastikan keberadaan doktrin tersebut dalam Putusan No. 1038 K/Pdt.Sus/2010. Adapun hukum kepailitan Amerika Serikat hanya mengandung pengaturan yang eksplisit mengenai doktrin equitable subordination, tetapi tidak mengenai doktrin debt recharacterization. Walaupun demikian, kedua doktrin tersebut telah dikembangkan oleh berbagai pengadilan di Amerika Serikat. Ketiga, pengaturan dan penerapan doktrin equitable subordination dan debt recharacterization di Amerika Serikat telah jauh lebih berkembang dibandingkan dengan di Indonesia. Walaupun demikian, terdapat beberapa kemiripan antara doktrin debt recharacterization yang terdapat di Indonesia dengan masing-masing doktrin equitable subordination dan debt recharacterization yang terdapat di Amerika Serikat.

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The United States recognizes equitable subordination and debt recharacterization as doctrines aimed at ensuring protection for creditors from inequitable conduct by other creditors (especially shareholder-creditors). On the other hand, Indonesia does not recognize these doctrines. However, Mahkamah Agung in Putusan No. 1038 K/Pdt.Sus/2010 has applied the debt recharacterization doctrine to shareholder loans by referring to UU KPKPU and, in particular, Article 3 paragraph (2) of UU PT. Nevertheless, these legal instruments do not explicitly regulate the application of the debt recharacterization doctrine. Therefore, this study will analyze (1) the regulation and application of the debt recharacterization doctrine in Indonesia; (2) the regulation and application of the equitable subordination and debt recharacterization doctrines in the United States; and (3) the comparison of the regulation and application of these two doctrines in Indonesia and the United States. Through research using normative juridical method and qualitative approach, the following conclusions can be drawn. Firs, the bankruptcy law in Indonesia provides protection for creditors in obtaining their rights and preventing debtor actions that harm creditors. In this regard, the application of the debt recharacterization doctrine adds an additional dimension to that protection, namely preventing shareholder-creditors actions that harm other creditors. Second, Indonesian bankruptcy law does not explicitly regulate the debt recharacterization doctrine, but Mahkamah Agung has ensured the existence of this doctrine in Putusan No. 1038 K/Pdt.Sus/2010. As for the United States bankruptcy law, it only contains explicit regulations regarding the equitable subordination doctrine, but not regarding the debt recharacterization doctrine. Nevertheless, both doctrines have been developed by various United States courts. Third, the regulation and application of the equitable subordination and debt recharacterization doctrines in the United States have developed much more than in Indonesia. However, there are some similarities between the debt recharacterization doctrine in Indonesia and, respectively, the equitable subordination and debt recharacterization doctrines in the United States."

"This paper looks at the current status and role of specific commercial contract law both national and international in view of recent European contract law reform. It reviews the value and necessity of a special and separate contract law for merchants in a global market and discusses critically the terminology, doctrine and objectives which this law is based upon. For a long time the choice of transnational law rules which are often non-state law has been marginalised and made impossible in state court proceedings. "